SB 

O I "^ -LETIN No. 26. 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

DIVISION OF BOTANY. 



.C52, 




A PRELIMINARY REPORT 



BY 



V. K. CHESNUT AND E. V. WILCOX. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
19 01. 




Glass S^<lI^ 
Book ' QSd 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of , 



Frontispiece. 




Bulletin No. 26. 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

DIVISION OF BOTANY. 



(- 



A PRELIMINARY REPORT 



BY 



V. K. CHESNUT AND K V. WILCOX. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 



1901, 



£^0 



V 



.as^ 



MAR 31 \S 
Di ot D. 









To the Senate and House of Representatives: 

I transmit herewith for the information of the Congress a commu- 
nication from the Secretary of Agriculture reconmiending the print- 
ing of the accompanying report on The Stock-Poisoning Plants of 
Montana. 

William McKinley. 
Executive Mansion, 

■ February m, 1901. 

3 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Office of the Secretary, 
Washington, D- ^'•, Fehmary 9^ 1901. 
Mr. President: I have the honor to transmit a preliminary report 
on the poisonous plants of the stock ranges of Montana. This report 
is the result of an investigation undertaken by the Department of 
Agriculture at the request of the State board of sheep commissioners. 
It has an important bearing on the stock interests of Montana and 
adjacent States, containing as it does not only a detailed account of the 
investigations and experiments, but concise summaries of symptoms, 
treatment, and remedies, which bring the results of the discoveries to 
the point of practical application by stock owners. A report of this 
character, which makes possible the saving of heavy annual losses to a 
great industry, should be widely distributed among the people who 
can profit by it. Under existing statute onh^ a thousand copies could 
be printed by this Department, and 1 have the honor to recommend, 
therefore, that the report be transmitted to Congress, and that atten- 
tion be called to the desirability of printing an edition sufficient to 
permit at least live thousand copies to be distributed by the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

T have the honor to remain, Mr. President, 
Very respectfully, 

James Wilson, 

Secretary. 



CONTENTS. 



General introduction 15 

Stock industry of Montana 15 

Occasion and aids of the present investigation 16 

Itinerary 17 

General range conditions 18 

Summer and winter ranges for sheep 18 

Effect of alkali on stock 20 

Herding and other details of the management of sheep 21 

Water supply on the ranges 23 

Altitude of the ranges 24 

Climatic character of the season of 1900 25 

Conditions under which poisoning occurs 26 

Influence of heavy rain storms 26 

Influence of snow storms 27 

Danger arising from driving or trailing sheep 27 

Influence of hunger 28 

Acclimatization of stock to the range 28 

Influence of the state of vegetation 29 

Influence of the stage of growth of plants 29 

Variation and localization of the poisonous substances in plants 30 

Variations in the feeding habits of stock with reference to poisonous plants. 33 

Extent of stock poisoning 34 

Experiments on rabbits 35 

Methods of prevention and remedies 38 

Displacing poisonous plants by forage plants 38 

Herding stock away from dangerous areas 39 

Eradication of poisonous plants by digging 40 

Popular methods of treating poisoned animals 40 

Permanganate of potash as a chemical antidote 42 

Directions for using permanganate 47 

Method of drenching 48 

Tympanites or bloat 49 

Nonpoisonous plants which are mechanically dangerous 50 

Plants poisonous to stock in Montana, or so reputed , 51 

Most important poisonous species 51 

Death camas {Zygadenus venenosus S. Wats. ) 51 

Description, habitat, and distribution 51 

History as a poisonous plant 52 

Experiments 54 

Symptoms and evidences of poisoning 61 

Remedial and preventive measures 64 

Summary 64 

Tall larkspur {Delphinium gkmcum S. Wats. ) 65 

Description, habitat, and distribution 65 

History as a poisonous plant 66 



10 CONTENTS. 

Plants poisonous to stock in Montana, or so reputed — Continued. Page. 
Most important poisonous species — Continued. 

Tall larkspur {Delphinium glaucum S. Wats.) — Continued. 

Experiments 67 

Symptoms 71 

Remedial and preventive measures 72 

Summary 73 

Purple larkspur {Delphinium bkolor Nutt. ) 73 

Description, habitat, and distribution 73 

History as a poisonous plant 74 

Experiments 76 

Symptoms of poisoning 79 

Remedial and preventive measures -. 80 

Summary 80 

Wyoming water hemlock ( Oicuiu uccidi'iitalitt (Ji-eene) 80 

Description, habitat, and distribution 80 

History as a poisonous plant 81 

Experiments 82 

Symptoms of poisoning 84 

Remedial and preventive measure.^ 85 

Summary 86 

White loco weed {Arugallus spicatus (Hook. ) Rydberg) 86 

Description, habitat, and distribution 86 

History as a poisonous plant 87 

Experiments 90 

Symptoms of poisoning 93 

Remedial and preventive measures 97 

Summary 99 

Other loco weeds {Arayallas spp.) 99 

Lupines ( Lupinus spp. ) 100 

Description, habitat, and distribution 100 

History as poisonous plants 101 

Experiment 108 

Symptoms of poisoning 109 

Remedial and preventive measures 109 

Summary 110 

Poisonous species of less importance . Ill 

Ergot ( Claviceps purpurea { Fr. ) Tul. j Ill 

Cow cockle ( Vaccaria vaccaria (L. ) Britton. ) 113 

Swamp camas {Zygudenus elegans Pursh) 117 

Showy milkweed {Asclepias speciosa Torr. ) _ 118 

California swamp hellebore ( Veratrum californicuin Duraud j 119 

Aconite {Aconitum columbianum Nutt. ) 121 

Psoralea ( Psoralea tenuiflora Pursh) 122 

Tall coneflower {Rudbeckia laciniata L. ) 123 

Henbane ( Hyoscyarnus niger L. ) 124 

Black nightshade ( Solanum nigrum L. ) 124 

Potato {Solanum tuberosum L. ) 124 

Spreading nightshade {Solanum Uiflorum Nutt.) 125 

Plants suspected of being poisonous 125 

Prairie fennels {Lomatium and Maslneun spp. ) 125 

False lupine ( Thermopsis spp. ) 127 

Synthyris {Synthyris rubra Benth. ) 129 



CONTENTS. 11 

Plants poisonous to stock in Montana, or so reputed — Continued. Page. 

Plants suspected of being poisonous — Continued. 

Western wild cherry {Prunus demissa (Nutt.) Walp. ) 131 

Baneberry ( Actaea ehurnea Rydberg) 131 

Oat smut ( Ustilago avenae ( Pers. ) Jensen ) 133 

Spurges {Euphorbia spp. ) 133 

Field horsetail ( Equisetum arvense L. ) 134 

Sneezeweed ( Helenium montanum Nutt. ) 135 

Oregon yew ( Taxus brevifolia Nutt. ) 135 

Eagle fern {Pteris aquilina L. ) 135 

Arnica {Arnica monocephala (L.) Ulin) 135 

Anemone {Pulsatilla Mrsiitissima (Pursh) Britton ) 136 

Red windflower {Anemone glohosa Nutt. ) - 136 

Dogbane {Apocynum spp. ) 137 

Showy Frasera {Frasera specio.sa Dougi. ) 137 

Snowberry {Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook. ) 138 

Slender nettle ( Urtica gracilis Ait. ) 138 

Lygodesmia {Lygodesmia juncea Don) 139 

Black greasewood {Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Iluok. ) Torr.) 139 

Eriogonum {Eriogonum spp. ) 139 

Scarlet Gaura ( Gaura coccinea Pursh ) 140 

Townsendia ( Townsendia parryi D. C. Eaton ; 140 

Edible plants which have been suspected of being poisununs 141 

Wild onion {Allium spp. ) 141 

Wild licorice ( Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursii) 142 

Wild hyacinth {Leucocrinum montanum Nun. ) 143 

Cow parsnip ( Heracleum lanatum Michx. ) 143 

False mallow {Malvastrum coccineum A. Gray ) 144 

Sage brush {Artemisia spp. ) 145 

Small-leaved cudweed {Antennaria parvi/uliu Nutt. ) 145 

Wild caraway {Carum gairdneri (Hook. & Arn. ) A. Gray ) 145 

Reed canary grass {Phalaris arundinacea L. ) 146 

Wild sunflower {Balsamorhiza saaittata Nutt. ) 146 

Wild geranium ( Geranium viscosissimum Fisch. & Mey. ) 147 

Low milk vetch ( Orophaca caespitosa (Nutt. ) Britton) 148 

False esparcet {Astragalus bisulcatus (Hook. ) A. Gray) 148 

White milk vetch {Astragalus drummondii Dougl. ) 149 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PLATES. 

Page. 
A typical mountain stock range. From Bridger Peak, looking east. . . Frontispiece. 

Pl.\te T. Death camas {Zygadenus venenosus) 51 

II. Tall larkspur {Delphinium glaucum) 67 

III. Wild geranium {Geranium viscosissimum) 66 

IV. Purple larkspur {Delphinium bicolor) 73 

V. Purple larksjiur {Delphinium bicolor), young plants 79 

VI. Red false mallow {Malvastrum coccineum) 78 

VII. Wyoming water hemlock {Cicuta occidentalis) 81 

VIII. Wyoming water hemlock {Cicuta occidentalis), young Tplant .. 80 

IX. AVhite loco weed {Aragallus spicatus), in flower 87 

X. White loco weed {Aragallus spicatus), in fruit 86 

XL Silvery loco weed {Aragallus splendens) 100 

XII. Purple loco weed {Aragallus besseyi) 101 

XIII. Purple loco weed {Aragallus lagopus) 100 

XIV. Lupine ( Lupinus leucophyllus) 101 

XV. Lupine {Lupinus sericeus) 100 

XVI. Ergot ( Claviceps purpurea) , in heads of wild rye grass Ill 

XVII. Cow cockle ( Vaccaria vaccaria) 113 

XVIII. Swava^) camas {Zygadenus elegans) 117 

XIX. Showy milkweed {Asclepias speciosa) 118 

XX. Black henbane {Hyoscyamus niger) 124 

XXI. Prairie fennel {Lomatium montanum) 127 

XXII. Prairie fennel ( Lomatium platycarpum) 126 

XXIII. Prairie fennel {Musineon hookeri) 127 

XXIV. Plains Cymopterus ( Cymopterus acaidis) 126 

XXV. Mountain false lupine ( Thermopsis montana) 127 

XXVI. Synthyris {Synthyris rubra) 129 

XXVII. Western wild cherry {Prunus demissa) 131 

XXVIII. Baneberry {Actaea eburnea) 132 

XXIX. Arnica {Arnica monocephala) 136 

XXX. Yellow Eriogonum {Eriogonum flavum) 140 

XXXI. Scarlet Gaura {Gaura coccinea) 140 

XXXII. Pink-flowered wild onion ( Allium brevistylum ) 141 

XXXIII. Wild hyacinth {Leucocrinum montanum) 143 

XXXIA^. Wild sunflower {Balsamorhiza sagittata) 146 

XXXV. Low milk vetch ( Orophaca caespitosa) 148 

XXX VI. False esparcet {Astragalus bisulcaius) 148 

13 



STOCK-POLSONmG PLANTS OF MONTANA. 



GENEEAL INTRODUCTION. 
STOCK INDUSTRY OF MONTANA. 

Montana i.s a typical grazing State. Long before it was so closely 
connected by its two great railway systems, the Northern Pacific and 
Great Northern, with the more settled regions to the east and west, 
its wide open ranges were a favorite ground for hunting herbivor- 
ous animals. Immense herds of elk, deer, and buft'alo then roved over 
its gi-assy plains and mountain sides. These animals have gradually 
been almost wholly exterminated from the State, and now in their 
place there are hundreds of thousands of horses, cattle, and sheep, 
which are being bred or fattened by their owners for profit, advan- 
tage being taken of the permitted free use of the large areas of public 
domain which the State still contains. 

The enormous growth of the stock industry of the State ma}^ be 
illustrated from the comparative statistics for sheep, the data for 
which have, perhaps, been most accurately secured in the difl'erent 
States. According, to the census of 1880, the States which held the 
largest number of sheep were in their order, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, and 
Missouri. The sheep were for the most part kept on farms. The 
aggregate number on farms was about 35,000,000, the number rang- 
ing on the public domain was approximately 7,000,000, and those 
otherwise held numbered 3,000,000, making a total of over 45,000,000. 
On July 1, 1900, the total aggregate number of sheep in the United 
States was reported by the Division of Statistics of the Department of 
Agriculture to be nearly 42,000,000. The States which then contained 
the largest holdings were in the order of their numbers. New Mexico 
and Montana, each with nearly 4,000,000 ; Wyoming and Ohio, each 
with nearly 3,000,000 ; and, with holdings of over 2,000,000 each, 
Idaho, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Colorado, and California. New Mexico, 
although the leading State in the number of sheep possessed, ranked 
only fourth with respect to money value. Montana, the second State, 
with regard to numbers, ranked first as to value, the total holdings 
amounting to a little over 111,000,000. The holdings in Ohio aggre- 
gated about $10,500,000, and New Mexico about $8,500,000. Oregon, 

15 



16 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

Idaho, Utah, Colorado, and California, each held over r),<><»0,()()0 
worth of sheep. The total value of these sheep throughout the 
United States on January 1, 1900, was estimated to be $122,665,913. 
At as recent a date as 1870 there were, according to the third annual 
report of the board of sheep commissioners of Montana, for 1899, ])ut 
4,212 sheep in the State. In 1880 there were 249,978. In 1890 the 
number had increased to 1,555,116, and now it is about 4,000,000. 

OCCASION AND AIDS OF THE PRESENT INVESTIGATION. 

Notwithstanding the great advantages of which the stock-raising 
industry of the State can boast, it has to contend with a few drawbacks. 
Two of these come within the domain of botany and agriculture. 
They arc, tirst, the existence on the feeding grounds of great quanti- 
ties of certain poisonous plants which, as the table given on page 34 
will show, are sometimes eaten extensively with fatal effect; and, 
second, the difficulty of producing sufficient hay to keep the animals 
in good condition over winter. The latter difficulty has recently been 
considered by Prof. Robert S. Shaw in Bulletin 21 of the Montana 
experiment station. The former has already been considered to a 
certain extent by one of us, Dr. E. V. Wilcox, in Bulletins 15 and 22 
of the same station. 

Much attention has also been and is still being given to the subject; 
especially from the chemical standpoint, by Dr. F. W. Traphagen, 
chemist of the Montana station, and by his assistants; and from the 
veterinary standpoint by Dr. M. E. Knowles, of Helena, the State 
veterinarian, and his associates. 

This report gives the results of a short preliminary investigation 
which was inaugurated at the urgent solicitation of the State board of 
sheep commissioners of Montana and warmly seconded by the State 
experiment station as well as by individual stockmen throughout the 
State. It is a pleasure for us to refer with thankful appreciation to 
the hearty cooperation which was given us by the various members of 
the station staff, including especially Director S. M. Emery, Prof. 
F. W. Traphagen, Prof. J. W. Blankinship, Prof. Robert S. Shaw, and 
Prof. W. M. Cobleigh. To the last we are indebted for all but two or 
three of the photographs reproduced in this report. Professor Trap- 
hagen and Professor Blankinship not only gave us the free use of their 
libraries and laboratories, but also furnished us with material and their 
personal assistance as well as many valuable suggestions. To Dr. P. A. 
Rydberg, of the New York Botanical Garden, we are indebted for the 
final identilication of the plants noted in the report. 

It is especially pleasing to refer to the generous assistance which was 
received from the stockmen. Hon. T. C. Power took every occasion 
to notify them of our presence in the State and to request reports from 
them concerning any case of possible poisoning. Many letters of 



ITINERARY OF INVESTIGATION. 17 

introduction wt'iv' furnished hy this gentleman, and also by Dr. M. E. 
Knowles, which rendered possible a rapid and satisfactory survey of 
the conditions in different parts of the State. It would have been 
impossible to see in the time at our disposal so much of the range 
country of Montana without the generous assistance of these gentle- 
men, and of Messrs. S. M. Emery and Cornelius Hedges. In all parts 
of the State stockmen gladly accompanied us in studying the actual 
conditions where poisoning had taken place, or. where it was impossi- 
ble for ranch owners to go on such trips, conveyances were freely fur- 
nished for our use. In a number of instances the stockmen were 
sufficiently interested to be willing to furnish sheep for feeding experi- 
ments with poisonous plants. Among these stockmen to whom we are 
especially indebted in the ways just indicated mention may be made of 
the following: W. W. Beasley, G. M. Beasley, A. E. Bower, G. C. 
Bower, F. I. Bower, Frank Conely, Walter Cooper. G. P. Christian, 
P. B. Christian. Daniel Floweree, W. C. Gillette, L. H. Hamilton, 
Dr. H. HoUoway. S. S. Hobson, Edward A. Kimpton, C. Kohrs, J. B. 
Long, M. M. Jenson. J. L. B. Mayer, J. T. Murphy, I. D. O'Donnell, 
C. H. Perrine, McC. Winiger, F. Pool, B. E. Stack. James Vestal, 
F. Warren, J. F. Woolman. and Mr. Warden of Augusta. 

ITINERARY. 

In the course of our investigations of the stock-poisoning plants of 
Montana we visited ever}" county of the State, Ijoth of the mountains 
and the plains. The greater part of the time, however, was spent in 
Fergus, Cascade, Teton, Park, Sweet Grass, and Yellowstone counties. 
The distance covered ])y the different trips in the field aggregated 
something more than 7,000 miles. Along the line of the Northern 
Pacific Pailroad the following localities were visited: Wibaux, Glen- 
dive, Miles City. Forsyth. Huntley, Billings, Laurel, Joliet, Red Lodge, 
Greyclift'. Bigtimber, Livingston, Coalspur, Muir, Chesnut, Bozeman, 
Belgrade, Logan, Townsend, Helena, Garrison, Deerlodge, Drum- 
mond, Bearmouth, Missoula, and Plains; along the course of the 
Montana Railroad: Merino, Martinsdale, Dorsey, Lombard; on the 
line of the Great Northern Railway: Glasgow, Ha\re, Shelby Junc- 
tion, Baltic, Cutbank, Summit, Columbia Falls, Kalispell, Fort Ben- 
ton, Great Falls, Cascade, and Craig. From each of these points 
drives or horseback trips of from 10 to 150 miles were made into the 
surroiuiding country. From Great Falls a trip was made across 
country through Belt, Geyser, Stanford, Utica, Ubet, Oka, Hopley, 
and ]\Iartinsdale. From Craig a trip was made by means of stage and 
private conveyance to Augusta and the mountain ranges lying 
between the forks of the Sun River. Thes(> trips by Avagon or horse- 
back occupied from 1 to 1.5 days each and rendered possible a 
S. Doc. 160 2 



18 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

thorough inspection of the general range conditions in those parts of 
the State which are best adapted to stock raising. In general, the 
most thorough study was made of ranges where serious losses of stock, 
had occurred during the season of 1900 or previous seasons, especially 
where the stockmen manifested a lively interest in the investigation 
and requested a visit to their ranges. Numerous requests were 
received by letter or telegram to make such visits, and all such requests 
were heeded if time permitted, for the reason that it was considered 
highly desirable to see as many cases as possible under natural condi- 
tions and thus to be able to note the symptoms of poisoning and the 
special circumstances of each case. The stockmen took such interest 
in making prompt notifications of cases of poisoning that many 
exceptional opportunities were had for observing cattle, horses, and 
sheep poisoned by diti'erent plants. In some cases it was impossible 
to reach the locality in time to observe the early symptoms, but in a 
majorit}^ of the cases which are recorded in this report the symptoms 
and circumstances of poisoning were studied in the field at first hand. 

GENERAL RANGE CONDITIONS. 
SUMMER AND WINTER RANGES FOR SHEEP. 

The majority of sheep raisers in the State are so situated that a part of 
their range is of the nature of treeless prairie while another part lies 
on the foothills or lower slopes of the mountains. Frequently the 
different tracts of range belonging to a single sheep raiser are not 
contiguous and it is therefore necessary to drive the sheep for short 
distances in order to move them from one range to another. The pre- 
vailing practice of sheep men is so to manage the grazing of the sheep 
upon the range that the sheep will be able to find the best possible pas- 
ture during the greater part of the yenv. In the early days of stock 
raising in the State the sheep men did not, as a rule, provide forage 
in the form of hay for the inclement weather of winter, but were 
apparently willing to take chances with their sheep under such climatic 
conditions as might develop. It was evidently of prime importance 
in this svstem of management that a portion of thv range be reserved 
in good condition for winter grazing. 

During recent 3'ears the sheep men of the State have realized more 
and more fully the importance of cutting large quantities of hay for 
feeding during the time when the ground may be coxered with 
snow. The same custom still prevails, however, of dividing th(> range 
into a simuner and winter range. As a general rule the ewe bands are 
held near the home ranch during the lambing season and until after 
shearing, when all the sheep are taken to the foothills or mountain 
ranges. It may be said, therefore, that sheep are held on the open 
prairie ranges during the winter and spring, while the mountain ranges 



SUMMER AND WINTER RANGES FOR SHEEP. 19 

are utilized from July until October. Several reasons may be urged 
for this S3^stem of management. In the first place, it is most con- 
venient to have the ewes near home during- the period of lambing, 
since the}^ require constant attention at this time. The shearing sea- 
son falls almost immediately after that of lambing, and it is obviously 
desirable that the wool should be removed at the points which are most 
convenient for transporting it to the railroad. A third reason, which 
is not less important, is the fact, which has been demonstrated by 
repeated experiments, that the foothill or mountain ranges are much 
more dangerous from the standpoint of poisonous plants during the 
early wet season than during the latter part of the summer and fall. 
Sheep men have known for several years that it is relatively or 
entirely safe to keep sheep on mountain ranges after the middle of 
July on which large numbers of sheep would almost certainly be 
poisoned if allowed to graze there during the months of May and 
June. It is a fact generally oliserved b}^ stockmen, and especially 
apparent to an observer in traveling over different parts of the State, 
that the range becomes freer and freer from plants of all description, 
except grasses, the farther one goes from the mountains. In the 
open prairie country, at a distance of 20 miles from the foot- 
hills or mountains, there are thousands of acres of good grazing 
countr}^ where almost no vegetation except grass is to be found. The 
grass upon the clean prairie range is, for the most part, short, and it 
is well known that short grass is preferred by sheep to tall grass, 
which, under ordinary circumstances, they avoid. This observed fact 
is strikingly illustrated in the different feeding habits of sheep on 
prairie ranges and on mountain ranges. On the former, sheep, as 
just indicated, seem decidedly to prefer short grass and such other 
plants as may in their early vegetative stages resemble grass, as, for 
instance, the species of Zygadenus. Other plants of a coarser nature 
are almost uniformly avoided on a prairie range during the greater 
part of the season. When, on the other hand, sheep are taken to the 
mountain range during Juh^ they avoid, for the most part, the tall 
grass growing in such localities and feed upon other plants, such as 
Balsamorhiza, Lepachys, Solidago, Potentilla, Spiraea, Astragalus, 
Glycyrrhiza, Lupinus, Geranium, etc. 

The diflieulties which lie in the way of grazing sheep and cattle 
together on a prairie range partlv disappear on the mountain ranges 
from the fact that the sheep and cattle do not there eat the same kinds 
of plants, the cattle preferring grass and the sheep the class of plants 
which have just been instanced. The majority of plants known to be 
poisonous and which are especially dangerous during the wet months 
of May and June are so far advanced by the time the sheep are taken 
to the mountain ranges that they are not tempting and are not eaten. 
The smaller species of larkspur {Del;phiniti/))t blcolor) and death camas 



20 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

(Zygadenus veneiiosus) are so dry and shriveled b}^ the middle of July 
that they are absolutely unpalatable to any animal. The water hem- 
lock {C'wxita occidental I s) does not grow so abundantly in the moun- 
tains as along the small streams and irrigation ditches of the plains, 
and becomes so large and coarse by the time mentioned that it is 
scarcely ever, if at all, eaten by sheep. The tall larkspur {D. glaucum), 
so far as our observations go, does not grow on the plains in any part 
of Montana, and is too coarse to be eaten by sheep during the season 
from July to October. The sheep owners have found by experience 
that these mountain ranges which are so extremely dangerous f oi- sheep 
during the early summer are quite safe during the months from rluly 
to September, inclusive. 

The safety of the mountain ranges, however, is somewhat affected 
by the presence of species of lupines. These plants are poisonous 
during certain stages, especially when containing ripe seeds. It is of 
interest to observe that sheep seldom eat lupine on the range during 
midsummer. If, however, they do eat it at a time when the seeds 
are ripe, it invariably causes disastrous poisoning. After the early 
fall frosts the pods of this plant rapidly open and the seeds fall out 
upon the ground. After this period it seems that the plants may be 
eaten with impunity by sheep or other animals. Occasionally, how- 
ever, the seeds are retained in considerable numbers in the pods until 
October or even November. A number of serious losses of sheep 
have been due to eating lupines in this condition after early fall snow- 
storms have covered the other forms of vegetation on the range. On 
account of the fact that cattle and horses are for the most part allowed 
to run freely upon the open range, the distinction between the summer 
and winter range in the case of these animals is not so important as in 
the case of sheep. Many cattlemen take advantage of the fall and 
spring round-ups to direct their cattle and horses to a range near the 
home ranch in winter and farther away in summer. The fact that 
horses and cattle are not herded like sheep prevents any arrangement 
such as that already mentioned as being couunonly adopted in the 
management of sheep. 

EFFECT OF ALKALI ON STOCK. 

A considerable difference of opinion prevails among stock raisers 
as to the physiological effect of alkali upon stock. A number of them 
still insist that the ordinary alkali found in the soil or around the 
borders of alkali lakes is a complete and perfect substitute for common 
salt. On the other hand an equally large and apparently increasing 
number of stockmen believe that alkali can under no conditions take 
the place of salt in the animal economy. 

In discussing the loco problem, attention will ])e called to the pos- 
sil)le inffuence of alkali in predisposing animals to the loco habit. In 



DETAILS OF THK MANAOKMKNT OF SHKP^P. 2l 

thiw eonuectioii it may be well to note the possibility that the failure 
to provide salt for aniirials on the range may tend to produce a per- 
verted or depraved appetite. Where salt is wanting- it is (juite pos- 
sible that stock more readily eat various noxious ])lants than when 
they are receiving- yalt regularly in suital)le (juantities. 

In the absence of any direct experiments on this question, it would 
seem safe to assume on general principles that the common forms of 
alkali found in the State have no physiological eflects which compare 
with those of common salt. The forms of alkali which occur in the 
State are sulphate of soda, epsom salts, and carbonate of soda; and, 
as well known, the ph3^siological eti'ects of these substances differ 
decidedly from those of common salt. 

Observations on this point can most easily be made on the sheep, 
since these animals are under constant attention. A number of sheep 
men have been led to believe that regular salting has a tendency to 
render sheep more docile and more easily managed; that the failure to 
give salt in sutficient ([uantity and at the I'ight time tends to produce 
a nervous uneasiness in the sheep which manifests itself partly in the 
eating of undue quantities of soil containing alkali. As to any injuri- 
ous effects which may be produced in stock by the eating of large 
amounts of alkali, no relial)le observations have been made. It is 
believed by some sheep raisers that the eating of alkali earth may 
cause the so-called locoed condition of sheep, but no data are at hand 
to prove this assertion. 

HERDING AND OTHER DETAILS OF THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 

Attention has already been called to the fact that sheep have to be 
moved over considerable distances in changing from one range to 
another. Some of the most disastrous cases of poisoning among them 
have occurred during these drives. It requires but little observation 
to convince one that sheep when being driven hurriedly from place to 
place are apt to eat many plants which they would not eat if allowed 
to feed at leisure. When feeding quietly on the range they exercise 
considerable choice in the selection of forage plants, but when being 
driven from 6 to 10 miles a day they are frequently forced to bite off 
almost all kinds of plants which grow along their course. The writers 
have observed a number of striking illustrations of this fact at all sea- 
sons of the year. On May 2-i a band of 2,000 ewes and lambs were 
driven a distance of about 8 miles. This band of sheep had been graz- 
ing for two weeks on a range where death camas was quite abundant, 
but no cases of poisoning had occurred up to this time. During the 
day a number of sheep were observed to eat the plant. Six ewes and 
10 lamljs died. About 20 ewes and 50 lambs were affected. Man}^ 
other similar cases might be related, but the fact is well understood by 
sheep men that sheep are more likel}^ to eat poisonous plants when 



22 STOCK-P(»IS()NING PLANTS Ob' MONTANA. 

being- driven rapidly and in a imng-ry condition than under conditions 
of re.st and full .stomach. Similar statements may l)e made concerning 
the trailing of sheep, a practice which prevails to a considerable extent 
among sheep men who are located at some distance from the railroad. 
In the early spring the sheep raiser selects those sheep which he wishes 
to sell and drives them to the nearest railroad or possibly a much lon- 
ger distance toward some larger market. During the transit a much 
larger percentage of deaths occur from eating poisonous plants than 
would occur in the same band of sheep if allowed to feed on the range. 
The only reasons which have been suggested or which seem adequate 
to explain this condition have already been mentioned. 

The ordinary practice of sheep raisers under the conditions which 
prevail upon the Western ranges is to keep the sheep under the con- 
stant attention of a herder. The size of the bands is generally from 
2,000 to 2,500. This number of sheep has been adopted as Ijeing the 
largest which can be conveniently managed by one man, and also the 
largest which can conveniently spread out so far as to graze with ease. 
This method of managing sheep has certain disadvantages which 
become apparent upon close observation of their feeding habits. As 
is well known to sheep raisers, it requires a considerable length of 
time for a ])and of 2,500 to become widely enough scattered for graz- 
ing purposes after being let out of the corral in the morning or after 
being rounded up on the range. During this time the sheep which 
happen to be on the outside of the band have good opportunity to 
graze, while those which are crowded together in the center are utterly 
unable to feed until the outside sheep have moved away to some dis- 
tance. Experienced herders interfere with the movements of the 
sheep just as little as is compatible with directing them over the desired 
course for the day. On the other hand it is a fact which all sheep 
raisers have observed that a considerable proportion of herders con- 
tinually urge forward the sheep which are in the rear of the bands and 
drive in the stragglers with the aid of the dog in order to maintain as 
compact a herd as possible. This is certainly a wrong method of man- 
aging sheep. Whenever they are frightened by the dog or otherwise 
their habit is to crowd together in a compact mass, and they remain in 
this position for some time before again scattering over the range for 
grazing. The worry incident to this repeated dogging and otherwise 
frightening the sheep must be severe, aside from the consideration of 
the loss of grazing time. 

But, desirable as it is to give the sheep the greatest possible free- 
dom, under present range conditions in the West it is manifestly 
impossible to leave sheep to their own resources. The country is only 
partially fenced, and the greater part of the fences which are already 
built will not turn sheep. There is nothing, therefore, to prevent 
them, when not under the care of a herder, from wandering away to 



WATKK SUPPLV ON THK KANGKS. 23 

indefinite distances. It must also be remembered that wolves and 
coyotes are still to he found in some luimbors on sheep and cattle 
ranges, and an attack by these animals upon the sheep is sure to 
result in disastrous consequences. For the present, therefore, no other 
method of manaofing sheep would seem practicable than the one now 
in vogue. When wolves and coyotes shall have been exterminated in 
the locality of sheep ranges, and these ranges shall have been inclosed 
in sheep-tight fences, it will perhaps be possible to dispense with the 
constant attendance of herders. It is probable that the method of 
keeping sheep in comparatively small herds in inclosed areas and allow- 
ing them to feed without any interference will secure better results in 
wool and mutton production than are secured liy the present method. 

The realization of this change would relieve, moreover, another 
perplexing problem in the management of the sheep range, namely, 
to obtain efficient and reliable herders. From a business standpoint 
the sheep owner nmst be considered to take great risk when he places 
a band of sheep, valued at from $8,000 to $10,000, in the hands of a 
man whom he has perhaps not known for more than a week. Many 
of the herders are reliable and experienced, while unfortunately many 
others, either from lack of experience or from irresponsible conduct, 
cause the sheep owners great losses which could have been entir(>ly 
avoided. A further possible disadvantage of the existing system is 
that the complete control and direction of the movements of the sheep 
by herders may tend in a series of generations to render the sheep 
more and more helpless and dependent on the protection and guidance 
of man. It is a common fac^t of observ^ation that sheep which have 
been closely herded, if left to themselves, are at first completely help- 
less and unable to seek protection against storms and to find water 
supply. It would not seem unreasonable to suppose that if the method 
of managing sheep mentioned above should become possible in the 
western ranges, sheep would gradually acquire a knowledge of the 
range and an ability to care for themselves similar to that possessed 
by cattle and horses under tlie same conditions. 

The present method of managing sheep possesses the advantage that 
when the herder knows by sight the poisonous plants of the range and 
is acquainted with their habitat and distribution he may easily herd the 
sheep away from the areas where such poisonous plants grow during 
the season when they are dangerous. On many sheep ranges certain 
areas have been found to be dangerous at certain times of the year, 
and the sheep are always kept away from these places during the dan- 
gerous season. 

WATER SUPPLY 0\ THE RANGES. 

The water supply on the stock ranges of Montana is abundant except 
during very dr}^ years. Near the mountains and along the foothills 
numerous creeks and small streams are to oe found, xarying in size 



24 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

aocordiug' to the time of year and the amount of snow in the moun- 
tains. These small streams flow out ovei- the plains and usually con- 
tain throughout their course a fairl}' uniform volume of water, but 
disappear at times where the bed is gravelly. A great number of 
springs are to be found in all situations near the mountains and on the 
plains, and on man}' ranges these springs furnish the water which is 
to be relied upon in the dr}" season. Besides the creeks and springs 
there are numerous lakes, some of them more or less alkaline, which 
furnish water for all kinds of stock. Manj^ of the alkaline lakes are 
formed ])v the water from alkali springs. By the constant evapora- 
tion of these lakes the water becomes more strongly alkaline than is 
the water which flows into them from the springs. For this reason, 
and also on account of the fact that the borders of such lakes are mudd}' 
and diflicult to approach, the plan of building troughs to receive the 
water directly from the springs has been adopted upon many sheep 
ranches. The water in the troughs is of course less strongly alkaline 
than is that in the lakes, and it is more easil}' accessible. This scheme 
for watering stock would seem highly commendable in view of the 
probable injurious efl'ects of drinking large quantities of strongly 
alkaline water. 

ALTITUDE OF THE RANGES. 

The altitude of the stock ranges in Montana varies from al)Out l.OOO 
to 9,000 feet. As already indicated, a large number of the stockmen 
of Montana have both prairie and mountain ranges. The prairie 
ranges average in altitude from 1,900 to about 5,000 feet. The lowest 
prairie range is found in the northeastern part of the State, in Valley 
and Dawson counties. Perhaps the highest range of this sort is found 
in the Smith River country. Cattle and horses during the summer and 
autumn occasionally range to the height of 8,000 to 9,000 feet, where 
in many parts of the State they find excellent pasture. As a rule, 
however, in Montana good range is not to be found above 7,000 feet. 
Along the slopes of the Rockies grass and other herbaceous vegetation 
have a definite and sharp limit, the upper two to four thousand feet 
of the mountains being rocky and without soil. It will be readily 
understood that cattle and horses, left as they are to their own resources 
and grazing in small herds, will find their way to higher and more 
inaccessible pastures than will sheep. With regard to the grazing of 
sheep in timber, it may be said that this is not practiced in Mon- 
tana. As a rule thei'e is no vegetation under trees which is desired 
l)y sheep, and it is exceedingly difficult to manage large bands of them 
in timber. On many mountain sides which are covered for the most 
part with forests there are large open parks in which good grazing is 
found, and such places are much coveted by sheep men for summer 
range. The sheep, hov/ever, will not of their own accord enter the 



CLIMATIC CHARACTER OF THE SEASON OF J9(l(). 2.5 

timber, and can only with difKcult}^ be driven through it. Even for 
the usual noonday rest they uniformly prefer to lie in the open tield 
exposed to the sun. 

CLIMATIC CHARACTER OF THP: SEASON OF IHOO. 

The season of 1900 in Montana Avas unusually early and unusually 
dry. During the previous winter the fa'li of snow was remarkably 
light, except for the unexpectedly severe storm of October, 1899. 
During the greater part of the winter there was no snow either on the 
mountains or on the plains. At the beginning of May vegetation was 
from two weeks to one month in advance of the average season. Over 
a considerable portion of the State, moreover, the rains which are 
expected during the months of May and June did not occur. As a 
result of this failure, the grasses and other plants of the range were 
checked in their growth and matured very rapidly. This condition of 
atl'airs prevailed generalh' over that part of the State which lies east 
of the mountains. In some localities westward heavy rainstorms 
occurred at intervals during May and June, but here practically no 
rain fell during these two months. This was especially true from 
Billings east along the line of the Northern Pacific Railroad, and from 
Havre east along the Great Northern Railroad. In this tract of coun- 
try the range became so exceedingly dry that prairie tires occurred in 
several localities during the month of May. These tires assumed dan- 
gerous proportions, and a number of sheep were ])urned to death in 
them. In the vicinity of Wibaux the danger from prairie tires was 
incrcmsed by the fact that the gi-ass had attained an unusual height 
during the preceding year and was still standing on the range in a dry 
condition. The grass of the present season did not otier sutficient 
green material to prevent the tire from spreading in the old grass. 
During the month of April the rainfall had been unusualh' large, and 
the ranges in consequence were in excellent condition at the beginning 
of May. It might naturally be supposed that with the grass in spe- 
cially good condition sheep would be less likely to eat poisonous plants 
than during seasons when the grass was more backward. Such, how- 
ever, was not the case. The early spring losses from poisonous plants 
were fully as serious during the season as they ordinarily are. Dur- 
ing June and the tirst half of July an exceptionally large number of 
sheep were killed by eating poisonous plants, but this might have been 
reasonably expected from the fact that the ranges, as already indicated, 
had IxK'ome largely dried up at this time. West of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, where an abundance of rain fell during the spring and earl}^ 
sunmier months, which was particularly the case in Flathead, Bitter- 
root, and Deerlodge valleys, some stock poisoning occurred in early 
spring, but very little during midsummer. 

Such dry seasons as that of 1900 seem not to be so disastrous to the 
stock industry as might be expectcHl. The short, dry grass produced 



26 >^TOOK-l'OISONIN(i PLANTS Ob' MONTANA, 

in .such seasons is apparently more nntritious than the lonoer. softer 
g-rass of wet seasons, and stock keep in l)etter condition Avhen grazing- 
on the short grass than when supplied with large quantities of the 
tall, soft grass. The chief fear of the stock grower in dry seasons is 
that he will not be able to cut sufficient quantities of hay for winter 
feeding. 

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH POISONING OCCURS. 

INFLUENCE OF HEAVY RAINSTORMS. 

Stockmen have observed for luany years that during the spring- 
months poisoning is apt to occur after heavy rains. This may be said 
to be a general l)elief of stock raisers and it is supported ])y numerous 
observations. Various explanations have been ottered for this fact. 
It has been suggested that certain plants may be more poisonous when 
wet with fresh rain or dew than under other conditions, but there 
seems to be no ground for such a supposition. The explanation which 
is most frequently proposed for this phenomenon is that stock when 
feeding innnediately after heavy rainstorms are more apt to pull up 
the roots of plants than when the range is dry. It is, of course, well 
known that in the case of many poisonous plants the active principle 
is located mostly in the roots and that large quantities of the leaves oi' 
stems would have to be eaten in order to cause serious poisoning. 
After a few days of dry weather the sod of prairie ranges becomes so 
exceedingly hard and tough that it is a difficult matter to dig up plants 
by the roots even with a trowel made for the purpose. While the 
ground is in this state it is simply impossible for the roots of these 
plants to be pulled up by stock in grazing. After working with plants 
in a dry condition on the range one naturally comes to doubt whether 
stock could pull up the roots of plants under any conditions. Obser- 
vations upon this point after heavy rainstorms, however, will soon 
dispel all doubt. The local rainstorms, usually accompanied by elec- 
trical disturbances, are often almost in the nature of cloud-bursts and 
are ordinarily very severe. The ground is so thoroughly soaked by 
these storms that large underground bulbs and thick, tul)erous roots 
are easily pulled out of the ground attached to the stems. It was 
found that after such storms Zygadenus bulbs could easily be pulled 
up. There seems to be no reasonable explanation of poisoning being 
more frequent after rainstorms except this loosening of the roots of 
poisonous plants. It is barel}' possible that storms accompanied by 
winds may beat down the weeds and grass together, so that stock will 
not distinguish between them so readily as under dry conditions. 



('IRCUMSTANCKS rNOKKASINU DANU KK OF 1V»IS< >N1N(}. 27 

INFLUENCE OF SNOWSTORMS. 

Many serious teases of stock poison inj^- have occurred after late 
spring- and early autumn snowstorms. In all cases which we have 
been able to investigate the explanation seems to be that the grass 
was covered by snow and nothing remained visible for the stock to 
eat except certain plants which happened to be poisonous. On some 
of the high ranges in the so-called mountain basins spring snowstorms 
frequently occur a.s late as the tirst of June. Sometimes the snow 
falls to a depth of 1 foot during these storms, and this depth is suf- 
ficient to cover all grass at that season of the year. The tall species 
of larkspur {DeJjyhinliDn glaucum) usually stands about 2 feet high 
at that time. This plant is greedily eaten hy cattle under these cir- 
cumstances, largely, perhaps, for the reason that nothing else is to be 
obtained without digging under the snow. Cattle and horses are the 
only animals which suffer from poison aftei" late snowstorms, for the 
reason that sheep are not allowed to graze on the mountain ranges 
until considerably later in the season, when the danger from snow- 
storius is past. A number of disastrous cases of sheep poisoning- 
have occurred, however, immediately after early fall snowstorms. 
In all such cases which we had opportunity to investigate the plant 
which was responsible for the poisoning was lupine. The conditions 
were about the same in all cases. The lupine pods had failed to open 
as completely as they ordinarily do, and a considerable portion of the 
seeds were, therefore, retained in the pods. The lupine was the onh' 
edible material which was left standing above the snow. The influ- 
ence of snowstorms upon stock poisoning depends, therefore, upon 
the fact that the late spring and early fall snowstorms frequently 
cover all forms of vegetation on the range with the exception of some 
poisonous plants. 

DANGER ARISING FROM DRIVING OR TRAILING SHEEP. 

Attention has already l^een called to the fact that many serious cases 
of poisoning among sheep have occurred while the bands were being- 
driven from one locality to another. The suggestion has already been 
made by way of explanation that sheep can not make the same choice 
of forage plants while being hurried over the range as thej^ can under 
conditions of rest. In following bands of sheep under these different 
conditions it was observed that a much greater variety of plants and 
even of noxious plants were eaten by sheep when on the trail than 
when left to eat at leisure. The more indiscriminate grazing observed 
under these conditions is perhaps due partly to sheep being worried 
and partly to their being unabk^ to satisfy their hunger so quickly as 
under more normal conditions. It would seem highly desirable that, 
where possible, two herders be detailed with each Ijand of sheep while 



28 STOCK-POISOinNG PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

they are being" driven for long' distances, especiall}' if the course of 
the drive lies in territory" that is known to contain poisonous plants. 
A herder in front of the band might readily detect the presence of 
poisonous plants upon the I'ange and direct the sheep to one side or 
the other of this dangerous area. The herder who followed the band 
might cooperate with the herder in the lead in such a way as to pre- 
vent the sheep from becoming too closely packed together. 

INFLUENCE OF HUNGER. 

The feeding movements of sheep and cattle are nnich influenced by 
the condition of the stomach, whether full or empt3\ It is a well- 
known fact that ruminants do not feel at ease as long as the stomach 
is not full. Consequently, where good forage is not present they eat 
anj^thing that may be obtained, including" man}' noxious plants, and 
this is especially true of sheep. Eating whatever is in sight, and as 
rapidly as possible, the}^ are liable to consume large quantities of 
plants of kinds which when taken in small quantities are not harmful, 
but which in large amounts may produce serious disturbance. A gen- 
eral rule to be observed in grazing is, therefore, that sheep in a starved 
or ravenously hungry condition should not be turned upon a range 
which is known to contain poisonous plants. The disastrous conse- 
quences of neglecting this rule are most frequently experienced by 
men who are shipping sheep long' distances by railway. As is well 
known, the sheep are taken oil' from the cars for food at rather long 
intervals and at such times they are alwaj'S ravenously hungrj-. It 
usually happens, also, that they are not acquainted with the plants of 
k)calities where they are unloaded for feeding. Serious losses result 
from allowing them to feed under such cii'cumstances without tirst 
inspecting the ground for the presence of poisonous plants. 

ACCLIMATIZATION OF STOCK TO THE RANGE. 

From the experience of sheep raisers, so far as ascertained, and from 
observations made in the Held during the season of 1900, it is impos- 
sible to conclude with certainty that sheep learn b}' long acquaintance 
with a given range to avoid all plants of a poisonous nature. It seems 
certain, however, that on any particular range less poisoning occurs 
among sheep which are familiar with the range than with strange 
sheep. This statement is supported by the experience of a majority 
of sheep raisers as being true for all plants of a poisonous nature 
except loco. The eating- of loco plants seems to be a habit, and on 
ranges where these plants are abundant it is safe to graze only such 
sheep as are unacquainted with the plants, or have never acquired the 
habit of eating them. 



CIECUMSTANOES AFFECTING DANGER OF POISONING. 29 

INFLUENCE OF THE STATE OF VECxETATlON. 

The state of the sum total of the h)cal v^egetation as aft'ected by 
seasonal and special weather conditions ordinarily exercises consider- 
able influence on the occurrence or nonoccurrence of poisoning'. In 
the early spring certain poisonous plants may start to grow before the 
native grasses. In this case, if these poisonous plants are at all con- 
spicuous or ofl'er any considerable amount of succulent material, stock 
are apt to be tempted to eat them. The acrid, bitter, or otherwise dis- 
agreeable taste of such plants seems to have very little influence in 
preventing stock from eating them. Under the conditions which have 
just been outlined sheep and cattle eat large quantities of various 
plants which are extremely unpalatable to the human taste. Later in 
the season, when grasses and other plants are all in vigorous vegeta- 
tive growth, it often happens that poisonous plants are eaten along 
with grasses liecause of their resemblance to grass, as in the case of 
Zyiindeuu^ (death camas), or because of their dark-green and tempt- 
ing appearance, as in the case of larkspur and water hemlock. 

In seasons of unusual drought the native grasses on the range 
usuallj" mature early in the season. In such cases a number of other 
plants frequently remain green and tempting to the stock after the 
grasses have become thoroughly dried. This is especially true of a 
number of native leguminous plants, among which are several \'alual)le 
forage plants and some poisonous ones, such as the loco and lupine. 
In times of drought, accordingly, these plants, including the injurious 
.species, are eaten l)y stock to a much greater extent than when grass 
is in a green, normal condition. It was noticed that young lambs 
when flrst beginning to eat were especially liable to actjuire the habit 
of eating loco weeds when the native grasses wei'e Ijadl}' dried up. 
The same statimient may be made of older sheep, with the qualification 
that they are aflected in a less degree. In general, it may be stated 
as being obviously true that stock will be more apt to eat poisonous 
plants when such plants offer moi'e tempting forage than the grass. 
The converse of this statement is also obviously clear that when 
grasses and other harmless forage plants are present in abundance and 
in good condition sheep and cattle less often make the mistake of eat- 
ing poisonous plants. 

IXFLUENCK OF THE STACJE OF GROWTH OF PLANTS. 

The actual stage of growth of any poisonous plant determines very 
largely whether or not it is eaten at a given time. Some of the pois- 
onous plants — as, for instance, the taller species of larkspur and water 
hemlock — become so large and coarse during their later stages that 
they are seldom if ever eaten by sheep in that condition. On the 



30 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

other hand, the large size or coarseness of the phmt does not appa- 
rently exercise any influence in preventing cattle from eating it. It 
is a most noticeable fact in connection with a class of poisonous plants, 
such as Zij(jadeni(}< (death camas) and the smaller species of larkspur, 
that the seeds ripen and the whole plant dries up very quickl}^ after 
flowering. The death camas seems to be especially tempting to sheep 
just before the flowering stem is formed. Very soon after the flowers 
have opened, however, the leaves and stem turn yellow and the plant 
shrivels and becomes much less conspicuous than when in a green 
condition. Similar statements may be made concerning the smaller 
species of larkspur. 

Thus far the vegetative stage of poisonous plants has l)een considered 
only with reference to its influence upon the selection of the plants by 
stock for forage. It is hardly necessary to observe that poisonous 
plants can do no harm to stock except as they are eaten. One of the 
most practical problems, therefore, in connection with the study of 
poisonous plants is the determination of the circumstances under which 
stock eat them. 

VARIATION AND LOCALIZATION OF THE POISONOUS SUBSTANCES 

IN PLANTS. 

There is another group of facts, partly dependent on stage of 
growth, partly not, which have an important influence on the danger- 
ous character of poisonous plants. It is found to be true, as will now 
be shown, that certain parts of a plant may be poisonous while others 
are comparatively inert, and that the (juantity of poison may vary in 
the same parts of the same species under diflerent conditions and 
especially at different stages of growth. It is also true that the poison- 
ous principle of a plant is often located in a particular part of a seed 
or a leaf, so that it is possible that a portion of that organ may be 
eaten with impunity while other parts would prove fatal if eaten. It 
will readily be seen that the reputation of a plant as poisonous or non- 
poisonous may be affected by these circumstances; since, for example, 
if a plant is poisonous only at a stage when it is not eaten, its poison- 
ous character would not have opportunity to show itself. 

Few of the plants discussed in this report are of sufficient commercial 
importance to have been studied chemically with anything like the 
detail necessary in order to draw definite conclusions in regard to the 
development of their characteristic poisons and their location in the 
various organs. But it is certain, in the case of the larkspur, at least, 
as will be shown in the later discussion, that there is marked variation 
in the quantity of the poisonous substances in the leaf before and after 
flowering. This may be the case with the leaves of' the death camas, 
but as this plant is not attractive to stock after flowering the question 
is of less practical importance. It is of interest to note, however, that 



POISONOUS QUALITY AS DEPENDING ON STAGE OF GROWTH. 31 

merely on account of the fact that stock are seldom killed by death 
camas after it has blossomed it has been considered by some stockmen 
as nonpoisonous after that period. As a matter of fact the seed and 
bulb are alike poisonous, both before and after flowering. The seed 
is seldom eaten and the bulbs can not easily be pulled out of the 
ground by stock while grazing after the rainy season in spring is 
over. 

All druggists and physicians are aware that the chemical compound 
by virtue of which a drug is of therapeutic value is almost invariably 
more abundant in one part of the plant than in another. The same is 
true with regard to poisonous principles, as is perhaps best illustrated 
in the case of Montana plants by the lupines. As is shown in the dis- 
cussion of these plants, the seed is by far the most poisonous part. 
There is, also, a particular stage of the plant's growth at which the 
drug prepared from it must be collected for use. According to the 
instructions issued by large wholesale dealers in crude native drugs to 
their collectors these periods are as follows: The roots of perennial 
plants are gathered at any time between the maturity of the leaves or 
iiowers and the fresh vegetation of the next period of active growth. 
The roots of biennial plants should be collected at any time after the 
first year's growth and before they send up their seed stalk the follow- 
ing spring. Barks are gathered as soon as possible after they will 
peel in the spring, flowers when thej^ first open, and seeds as well 
as leaves and herbs just before they mature. As a general rule all 
drugs are most powerful when collected at the appropriate season 
as outlined above. By observing these rules uniformity of strength, 
a very essential requirement, is also secured and the drugs are more 
easily cured and prepared in the most accepta})le form for the market. 
A good example of how a plant may. according to the stage of its 
growth, be poisonous or nonpoisonous to stock is furnished in the case 
of the common passion-flower vine in an article published by Mr. 
Theodore A. Melter in the Bulletin of Pharmacy for May, 1899. It 
has been ascertained that the drug gathered from this vine is most 
potent when gathered at the flowering season. Five hundred pounds 
of the plant which had been ignorantly collected three months later 
was fed by Mr. Melter to a horse as a substitute for hay, with the 
result that the animal thrived well and became fat. At another time, 
however, his horse accidentally gained access to and ate about 30 pounds 
of the same drug which had been gathered at the flowering season. 
The horse was found in a stupid state the next day and it remained in 
this condition, but with loss of flesh, for six weeks, when it died. 

In general the part of a plant which causes most cases of stock poi- 
soning is the foliage. The period of its maturity is regarded by some 
of the cultivators of medical plants as being the time at which its chlo- 
roph}' 11 content is most highly developed or when the leaves are most 
intensely green. This is generally soon after the flowering tune m 



32 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

the case of herbaceous plants, but with some, such as aconite, purple 
larkspur, poison camas, and many bulbiferous plants closel^^ related 
to the last, it is earlier, the leaves of some of them havinjr entirely 
dried up before the plants have flowered. In these cases the leaves 
would naturally ])e most active physiologically if eaten before the 
plants blossomed, and might be practically inert at other times. 
Such seems to be the case with the purple larkspur. The taste of the 
leaves, as well as the results of our experiments and the observations 
of others, indicate that the root as well as the leaves is more poison- 
ous before the flowering time than afterwards. The same is true also 
of the leaves of the tall larkspur. In both cases the leaves are fre- 
quently in the succulent condition after the flowers have expanded. 

A very interesting and instructive investigation of the formation 
and occurrence of poisonous alkaloids in foliage has recently been 
carried out in the case of the cinchona alkaloids in cinchona leaves by 
Dr. J. P. Lotsy * in Java. The author showed that the quantity of 
alkaloids varied greatly in the leaf as taken by day or night and on 
sunshiny or cloudy days, being most abundant in the first instance in 
each case. He showed also that these alkaloids are formed in the 
leaves during the day and are almost wholly deposited in the branches 
or bark at night. If gathered in the early morning, therefore, cin- 
chona leaves Avould be practically inert, Avhile if gathered in the 
evening, especialh' on a sunshin}' da}*, they would be in their most 
active state. 

It has l)(^en shown that the location of alkaloids and other toxic sub- 
stances in plants is not always the same even in similar organs. These 
are sometimes to l)e found in the most rapidly growing parts of the 
plants, as in the white sprouts of potatoes, and again they are to be 
found in ])arts which have lieen fully developed, as in the case of 
sapotoxin in corn cockle [Agrosteitiviagithago). In both of the above 
cases the remainmg portion of the organ is edible. Barth'^ has shown 
that in aconite seeds the central parts contain most of the aconite, while 
the seed coats are free from it; in the calabar bean {Physostignia vev- 
enosd) the very poisonous alkaloid, eserine or physostigmine, is found 
in the cotyledons; in the seeds of jimson weed {Datura xtrarrtonium)^ 
black henbane {Hyoscyamus niger)^ and heW'^dionnQ. {Atropahelladonna) 
the alkaloids are located chiefly in the layer beneath the epidermis. 
The epidermis itself and the seed covering is in each case free from 
alkaloids; in nux vomica seeds, strychnine and l)rucine are found in 
the endosperm cells, but brucine alone occurs in the embrj^o. In 
jimson-weed seeds the quantity of alkaloids in unsprouted seeds was 
found to be 15 times as great as in sprouted seeds. In growing col- 
chicum the percentage of alkaloid is very large in the growing tips 
and comparatively low in the lower part of the bulb. The flrst year's 

* Mededeeling uit ' Slands Plantentuin, vol. 36. 1899. 
^'^ Merck's Market Report, vol. 8, pp. 306-307. 1899. 



HABITS OF STUCK WITH KKFERENCE TO POISONOUS PLANTS. 38 

crop of leaves of foxglove {DujitaHx. purpurea) and henbane is infe- 
rior to that of the second on account of the smaller quantit}' of its 
active principles and the larger tjuantity of water and other inert 
compounds. The variation in strength of the powerfull}' poisonous 
drug known as strophanthus is so well known to physicians that its 
medical use is being abandoned. 

Many other instances of the variable location and (juantitj^ of poi- 
sonous substances in plants might be cited, but these will show the 
importance of knowing the entire history of a plant in testing its 
character as poisonous or nonpoisonous. 

VARIATIONS IN THE FEEDING HABITS OF STOCK WITH REFER- 
ENCE TO POISONOUS PLANTS. 

A curious circumstance which one can not fail to observe in the 
study of poisonous plants is the great variation in the habits of 
domesticated animals with reference to eating them. This applies 
both to different individuals of the same species and to the same indi- 
vidual at different times. There seems to be no way of accounting 
for the appetite or taste of stock. This statement is perhaps espe- 
ciallv true of sheep. We have often observed sheep eating greedily 
on one day plants which they could scarcely be persuaded to eat on 
the following day on the same range. It is frequently to be observed 
that one band of sheep eat freeh" certain plants which are not touched 
by another band of sheep feeding as nearly as possil)le under the same 
conditions. It is also to be observed that there is a striking variation 
in the taste of different sheep belonging to the same band. It is 
manifestly not safe to conclude, when a certain number of sheep in a 
given band are affected by a poisonous plant, that all of the sheep 
have eaten the plant, and that the ones which are affected ai'e the only 
ones which are susceptible to the poisonous action of the plant. It 
would be fully as safe to assume that the affected sheep alone ate the 
plant in an}" appreciable quantity. Naturally the variation in the 
appetite and feeding habits of different sheep is not manifested merel}^ 
with reference to poisonous plants, but also to forage plants. 

It is rather an easy matter in observing the actions of a band of 
sheep upon the range to note striking differences in the dietetic selec- 
tions of different sheep. To illustrate, a few observations may be 
recorded which were made upon a band of sheep on a foothill range 
at an altitude of 4,600 feet. A few of the sheep were observed eating- 
large quantities of wild sunflower {Balmmorhiza sac/ittafa), a few ate 
freely of false lupine {Tlwriiiopsk rhoinhifolia)^ some contined their 
attention largely to the wild geranium, while others ate false esparcet 
{Astragalus hisulcatus) almost exclusively. Two sheep were seen eat- 
ing the leaves of lupine, and about tifty ate a greater or less (juantity 
of Zygadenns venenosus^ while the majority of sheep in the band fed 
8. Doc. \m 3 



34 



STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA, 



exclusively upon the native grasses on the range. It should be stated 
that these grasses were in excellent condition at the time and the 
sheep were \)\ no means forced to eat other plants. It may be of 
interest to note also that no sheep were observed eating the smaller 
species of larkspur, although this plant grew in great abundance on 
the range where they were feeding. 

Not only are striking ditferences to be observed in the feeding habits 
of individual sheep in a given band and in diflerent bands in ditferent 
parts of the State during one season, but a consideral)le variation is to 
be observed in different years on the same range. In many parts of 
the State the death camas and the small larkspur grow in the same 
locations, and they are both in their most tempting condition at the 
same time. Cases of poisoning which occur where both are present 
are easil}^ traceable entirely to one or the other of these plants. Dur- 
ing some years death camas is eaten, while during other years the 
poisoning is traceable to the larkspur. It is difficult to discover the 
cause of this variation in the appetite of the sheep. Their arbitrary 
selection of one plant at one time and another at another time is one 
of the chief factors in determining the amount of poisoning which 
will occur on a given range during any particular season. It is the 
only factor which can not be estimated in any definite manner. It is 
a comparatively simple matter for the l)otanist to detei-mine what poi- 
sonous plants grow on the particular range and to indicate their rela- 
tive a])undance or scarcity. It is possible to determine by feeding- 
experiments the amount of any particular plant which must be eaten 
in order to cause death, but no one can with certainty predict whether 
a given band of sheep will eat any particular poisonous plant when 
allowed to graze on the range where that plant grows. 

EXTENT OF STOCK POISONING. 

In order to give an idea of the importance of the general subject of 
plant poisoning to the stock industry, the cases which came under our 
observation during the season of 1900 due to the more important poi- 
sonous plants are here tabulated. The number of fatal cases is indi- 
cated in each case. Probably only about one-fourth of the actual 
cases came under our notice. 



PoimnliKj c(t»ei> among cattle, liorses, and slieej) in Montana ob.srrreil dnring the season of l.'iOO. 



Sheep. 



Poisoned. Died. 



Cattle. 



Poisoned. Died 



Horses. 



Poisoned. Died. 



Zygadenus venenosus. 
Zygadenus elegans . . . 

Lupine 

Delphinium bicolor. . . 
Delpliinium glaueum. 
Cicuta occidentalis . . . 
Loco weeds 



3,030 I 636 

40 I 15 

3,000 1,900 



105 
3,550 



80 
700 



Total 



9,725 3,331 



2 


2 


100 


56 


36 


30 


3 





DIFFERENCES IN SUSCEPTIBILITY TO POISONING. 35 

Tn the winter of 1898-99,4,700 sheep were poisoned from eating 
lupine hay and 1,812 died. In the season of 1900, 150 cattle were 
poisoned apparently from eating- false lupine and 100 died, 

EXPERIMENTS ON RABBITS. 

Most excellent facilities for observ^ing cases of stock poisoning as 
they occurred in the field were afi'orded us in 1900 from May until 
July, but often it was impossible for either of us to be on hand when 
the animals were first poisoned. In practically all accidental cases 
occurring on the ranges it is impossible to make anything like a sat- 
isfactor}^ inspection of the symptoms of poisoning or to estimate the 
quantity of the plant eaten, and it is often diflicult even to deter- 
mine the plant, still more the particular part of the plant which 
caused the mischief. Besides, the accidental cases ordinarily observ- 
able cover about five or six of the several dozen plants which have 
been cast under suspicion by the stockmen of Montana and concern- 
ing which it was necessary that they should have some definite infor- 
mation. For these reasons it was necessary to make numerous ex]:€ri- 
ments with various plants on inexpensive animals. Rabbits were 
selected for this purpose because, being herbivorous in their nature, 
they more closely resemble stock, so far as their eating habits are 
concerned, than any other commonly domesticated pets. The neces- 
sity of choosing by this standard is apparent when one considers the 
wide difference in the susceptibility to certain poisons shown in vari- 
ous animals having different feeding habits and corresponding differ- 
ences in the nature and extent of the digestive areas in the stomach 
and intestinal canal. So, too, there is a difference in the susceptibility 
which is somewhat correlative to the general, and especially to the 
mental, development of the animal.' The brain and nerve poisons, 
such as morphine, atropine, conine, and aconitine, are much less poi- 
sonous to animals than to men. Dogs and horses can, in proportion 
to their weight, endure ten times as much morphine as men, while 
doves can stand five hundred times and frogs even a thousand times 
as much. In herbivorous animals, especially in those which chew 
their cud, such as sheep and cattle, the digestive tract is much longer 
than in the case of omnivorous or carnivorous animals, consequently 
the food remains in the body for a much longer period. In case of 
herbivorous animals this period is usually several daj^s, while in car- 
nivorous animals it is about twentv-four hours only. In the former 
case, therefore, the poison would have nmch more time to become 
absorbed into the lilood than in the latter case. This, according to 
Frohner, probably explains why it is that the metallic poisons are 
much more fatal to herbivorous than to carnivorous animals. The 
fatal dose of calomel is given for a cow as practically the same as that 

* See Frohner, Lehrbuch der Toxicologi(> fiir Thierarzte, pp. 12, 13. 1890. 



36 STOCK-POlSONlNG PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

for a bog, notwithstanding the difference in size. It takes over a 
pound of the sugar of lead (lead acetate) to kill a horse, while a tenth 
of that quantity will kill a cow of equal weight. Chemical reaction 
between the digestive juice of various animals and the poisons con- 
tained within the plants, as well as the chemical reactions between 
the poisons and the chemical constituents of the various food stuff's, 
undoubtedly have considerable influence in some cases on the effect 
of poisons before they are taken mto the blood. If, for example, a 
plant containing a poisonous alkaloid were eaten together with another 
containing tannin, some or all of the alkaloid would be rendered inert 
by the formation of the insoluble tannate of the alkaloid. So, too, 
physiological processes in one animal may tend to retard the absorption 
of the poison from the stomach, while in others they may exert no 
such reaction. In the latter case, of course, the poison w^ill exert its 
influence on the system ])efore there is any chance for it to be eliminated. 

The fundamental rule relative to the eflect of the poisoning of any 
animal is that a certain amount of the toxic substance must l)e in cir- 
culation in the l)lood and that the amount circulating depends not only 
on the amount administered but on the rapidity with which excretion 
takes place. It may, therefore, happen that very poisonous substances 
may so quickly he eliminated by the animal that there will never at 
any one time be a sufficient amount of it in the blood to produce a 
fatal eflect or even any eflect at all.^ 

From the foregoing it is evidently quite probable that the suscepti- 
bility to some poisons will differ in the case of rabbits as compared 
with that of stock. As a rule, how ever, the results obtained with rab- 
bits are considered by pharmacologists as trustw^orthv indications of 
the effects Avhich would be obtained by similar experiments upon stock. 
The animals must, of course, be in a healthy condition when used. 

The general method of procedure, Avhich after a few preliminary 
experiments was adopted in our work, was as follows: 

A deflnite quantity of the fresh plant or an extract thereof was offered 
to a rabbit of known weight and the results noted in chronological 
ordei . The weight of the fresh material eaten was determined by sub- 
tracting the weight of the residue left after a certain time and making 
a proper allowance for the loss of its weight due to the evaporation 
of water from its tissues. To ascertain this loss a weighed portion of 
the material identical with that which was fed was subjected as far as 
possible to the same evaporation influences and again weighed at the 
end of the experiment. 

In several cases it was found that the rabbits would either eat but 
a very small quantity of the plant or eat it too slowly for a satisfactory 
test. In this case extracts were made and fed in known quantity by 



Hermann's Experimental Pharmacology, ]>. t)5. 1883. 



METHODS ADOPTED TN EXPERTMENTTNO ON PATJHTTS. 87 

lueaiH of an oidiiiaiT syriii*i(> and a ])iece of lublxT ttibiiii;-. The tube 
was well oiU'd aiul .shoved gently into the aniniaFs. stomach, connection 
made with a syi-inoe, and its contents injected into the stomach. In 
every case the extracts represented a definite quantity of the fresh 
plant. If th(^ first injection produced no characteristic symptoms 
within a half hour, a larger dose was given, and this operation repeated 
until the true character of the plant was established. When the fatal 
dose w^as determined other animals were given an equal quantity and 
thv. effect of antidotes, especially of the permanganate of potash, was 
determined. In view of the large numbei- of plants to l)e tested, only 
two extracts, one aqueous and one alcoholic, were used in most cases. 
A more satisfactory examination would have been made if we had used 
about a half dozen of the more common solvents, but lack of time 
would not permit this, and it was thought, moreover, that working as 
we did, with fresh, green material, the toxic substances would be more 
soluble in water than if the dried plants had been used. The aqueous 
extract was tried first, then the extract from the well-pressed residue 
used for obtaining the aqueous extract, was given. The poison in the 
latter case being in a solution of 50 per cent alcohol, it was necessary 
to dose other rabbits with equal quantities of alcohol in order to note 
the ditterence in effect which was due to the poison. The alcohol given 
with the poison may in some cases have acted as a partial antidote in 
modifying the s3'mptoms, and in some cases it may have increased the 
intensity of the action, but as the amount given was in almost every 
case ver}' small it could have had ])ut little effect on the ultimate action 
of the poison, the real point at issue. 

Care \Tas observed in most of the experiments made to use fresh 
unwilted plants of a definite stage of growth and to cut up a weighed 
quantity finel}" in a sausage grinder, saving all of the juice and extract- 
ing this material for al)out twelve hours with a definite weight of water 
or 50 per cent alcohol, in no case applying a higher temperature for 
the extraction than that normal to the human body. T'he aqueous 
extracts were used within a few clays aftei- their preparation in 
order to preclude changes which might be brought about by molds, 
which in some cases attacked the extracts within three or four days. 
No diflSculty was experienced in keeping the alcoholic extracts in an 
uncontaminated condition. 

A few of the extracts were, on account of the short time at our dis- 
posal, tested hypodermically on the rabbits. In these cases it was our 
object simply to discover whether the plants Avere poisonous or not, 
and due allowance was made for the difference in the method of intro- 
ducing the poison into the system. As is well known, all poisonous 
substances are more energetic when injected under the skin than when 
taken into the stomach. Some, such as dilute mineral acids and the 
venom of certain poisonous snakes, are practically inert when taken 



38 STOOK-POISONTNG PLANTS OK MONTANA. 

into the .stomach, but are fatal if injected into the blocnl. The ditier- 
cnce in the fatal dose when injected hypodermicall}^ and when fed 
varies somewhat according to the poison and also to the kind of animal 
used. With str3"chnine, for example, the ratio between the fatal dose 
given hypodermically and that given by way of the stomach is one to 
ten in sheep, one to five in horses, one to three in pigs, and one to two 
in dogs. This ratio in the case of sapotoxin, a poisonous substance 
found in many plants, is nearl}^ one to one hundred in the case of ani- 
mals having a healthy alimentary tract. When the latter is ulcerated, 
however, the sapotoxin is far more poisonous. This explains why it 
is that some animals in a herd or pen are sometimes killed by eating a 
certain plant, while others eat it to a certain extent with impunity. 

METHODS OF PREVENTION AND REMEDIES. 
DISPLACING POISONOUS PLANTS BY FORAGE PLANTS. 

The use of aggressive forage plants for the purpose of displacing 
poisonous plants upon the range has been attempted on a small scale 
in various parts of the State, The preliminary experiments with such 
forage plants are being conducted by the Montana Experiment Station 
and ])y various stockmen with a view to determining whether such 
plants are able to maintain themselves under the semiarid conditions 
of the Western cattle ranges. The only forage plants which have 
been used for this purpose are smooth brome grass {Bromus Inermh) 
and western wheat grass or "bluejoint" {Agropyron, occidentale Scrib- 
ner). Both of these grasses make a vigorous growth upon the ranges 
of the plains and mountains. The smooth brome grass has been widely 
distributed in the Western States in the hope that it might prove a 
valuable pasture and meadow grass under semiarid conditions. Natu- 
rally, however, it attains a greater size and covers the ground more 
completely when supplied with an abundance of moisture than when 
growing in dry situations. 

Judging from the present conditions in Montana it will require sev- 
eral years for the smooth brome grass to form a sufficiently thick sod 
to displace larkspur, death camas, or loco weeds, which are indigenous 
to the locality. Under dry conditions the smooth Income grass seems 
to cover the ground rather slowly. In many areas of this grass, where 
it had been growing for two or three years, the stools were well sepa- 
rated by considerable intervals of bare ground. The bluejoint spreads 
more rapidly from the root, and is usually more aggressive than the 
brome grass. Apparently, however, bluejoint does not do well on 
the dry ranges. The short-awned brome grass {Bromus marginatus 
Nees), a native species, is spreading rapidly in a number of localities 
in various parts of the State. In some places this grass had already 
displaced all other native plants and occupied the ground completely. 



HERDINCt STOCK AWAY KKOM POISONOUS PLANTS. 39 

On a cattle ranch near Augusta it has invaded a timothy meadow and 
entirely killed out the timothy as far as it has spread. This In-ome 
grass produces a heavy crop of hay, and a few stockmen, having- noticed 
its good points, are preparing to save seed for sowing upon other parts 
of their ranges. Although work and observations along this line 
extend over only three or four years, the outlook is promising, and it is 
perhaps not unreasonable to hope that l)y assisting the distribution of 
the brome grasses, bluejoint, and other aggressive forage plants the 
quantity of poisonous plants upon the range may be appreciably 
diminished. Both the smooth lirome grass and the short-awned begin 
to grow in the spring earlier than the other range grasses or poison- 
ous plants, and both these grasses are greedily eaten by all range 
stock. This being the case, it is evident that stock will be less apt to 
eat poisonous plants in the early spring when these desirable grasses 
have become established in great abundance. 

HEKDINO STOCK AWAY FROM DANGEROUS AREAS. 

Attention has alread}^ been called to the possibilities of avoiding 
poisoning plants by judicious herding. In the present state of the 
study of poisonous plants perhaps the most important practical rec- 
ommendation is that all herders should be made thoroughl}' familiar 
with the appearance of the different poisonous plants in all their stages. 
This familiarity should lie such as to enable the herder to recognize 
them at a glance, and to put him in a position, therefore, so to direct 
his sheep that they will avoid the areas where poisonous plants grow. 
This knowledge is especially desirable for herders when caring for 
sheep on the trail or at feeding stations. In discussing lupine poison- 
ing a case will be mentioned in which 400 sheep died from eating- 
lupine immediately after being luiloaded from the cars. It would not 
have been difficult to prevent these sheep from getting the lupine at 
the time if the herder had known the dangerous nature of the plant. 
Another instance of this sort happened at Baltic^ where a band of 
sheep was unloaded for quarantine on account of suspected scab. Dur- 
ing the lirst day after l)eing unloaded the sheep ate death camas, and 
100 of them died. The herder recognized the plant, and after that 
day avoided areas where it grew, with the result that he lost no more 
sheep. 

In a diy climate such as that of Montana it is well known that on 
portions of range where animals are not allowed to feed the native 
grasses attain a considerable height, come to maturit}^ and remain 
standing in the condition of ha}^ without losing any nutritive princi- 
ples. It is, therefore, quite possible for a sheep raiser to abandon any 
range which is badlv infested with poisonous plants until late in the 
summer or until fall, when these poisonous plants are too coarse and 
dry to l)e tempting. No loss of forage will be suffered hy adopting 



40 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

this (course, since the range which is abandoned in summer will be 
good for winter grazing-. Ry giA'ing" serious attention to the problem 
of poisonous plants and becoming familiar with the time of the first 
appearance in the spring, the time of blooming, and the period when 
the}^ liegin to shrivel up, and by ])earing in mind the period of growth 
during which they are poisonous, the stockman will l)eableso to direct 
the movements of his animals as to avoid a large proportion of his 
annual loss. 

ERADICATIOX OF POISONOUS PLANTS BY DIGGING. 

The possibility of eradicating a given plant from a range will depend 
almost entirely upon the extent of its distribution and upon the deti- 
niteness and size <^f the areas upon which it grows. In the case of the 
tall larkspur, which ordinarily grows in small, well-detined areas, it 
would be a comparatively simple undertaking to dig up all the speci- 
mens within the reach of cattle upon the range. On the other hand, 
it is manifest that plants which are widely distributed and which occur 
under o variety of conditions of soil and moisture could not be exter- 
minated by this means. As examples of such plants we may mention 
the loco weeds and death camas. 

POPULAR METHODS OF TREATING POISONED ANIMALS. 

Serious mistakes have been committed by many herders in the care 
of poisoned sheep. It seems to be frequently assumed that animals 
which are suffering from the effects of poisonous plants must be kept 
moving under any and all circumstances. In order to do this the herder 
is forced to make free use of the dog and otherwise w^orry and excite 
the sheep. A general principle of great importance in the treatment 
of poisoned animals is to let them alone as far as possible. Cases of 
nai-cotic poisoning may be an exception, but with the ordinaiy kinds 
of poisoning the inevitable result of all unnecessary excitement is to 
exaggerate the symptoms and to precipitate a fatal outcome. It has 
been noted that among the symptoms of poisoning an increasing rate 
of respiration and heart beat is especially prominent. Evidently when 
such symptoms are present it is not advisable to excite the poisoned 
animals in any manner, since such excitement would produce a still 
higher rate of respiration and pulse. In a serious case of larkspur 
poisoning of sheep, which occurred in Montana in 1897, it was found 
that in attempting to hurry the poisoned sheep the severity of the 
symptoms increased, producing fatal results in many cases in which 
there would otherwise probably have been recovery. Even where 
frenzy is the prominent symptom it is probably advisable to allow the 
animals to move about without restraint except during the administer- 
ing of remedies. Any interference with the movements of the poisoned 
animals is especiall}' liable to increase the excitement, already too great 



l*i)lM'l.AR METHODS OF TREATIN(4 POISONED ANIMALS. 41 

in cafies ^\ here cerebnil .syiuptoin.s are prominent. Wiiere no remedies 
iiYv at hand for immediate treatment, it is always ad\isable to leave the 
animals to themselves, allowing' them to lie down and remain quiet if 
they will. In the case of sheep it is, of course, impossible to leave them 
unprotected upon the range over night, for the reason that coyotes and 
wolves would destrox' them. If a large number of sheep are afl'ected 
at the same time, it will be desirable for the herder to stay out over 
night with them. If, on the other hand, only a small number of sheep 
are poisoned, it will be possible to haul them in a wagon to the corral. 

In nearly all cases of stock poisoning the sheep herders and cowboys 
at present resort to bleeding. A considerable diii'erence of opinion 
prevails among them as to the best place at which to operate. Some 
prefer the root of the tail, others the ear, and still others the inside of 
the lips. Bleeding at one or the other of these places is said to ))e (juite 
uniformlv efficacious, and is tried w^th great confidence ))y the sheep 
herders and cowboys. As is well known the practice of bleeding w^as 
constantly employed in the earh^ history of huiuan medicine, and 
was considered l)eneticial for all sorts of ailments. The same might 
be said of the early history of veterinary medicine. During recent 
years, how^ever, the practice has l)een abandoned except in a few 
special instances where it seems to be directly indicated as the appro- 
priate procedure. With regard to bleeding poisoned animals, it is 
obvious that the practice w^ill have a good or bad eifect according to 
the symptoms and condition of the animal in question. If the poisons 
which are concerned have a depressing efi'ect upon the heart, it is 
evidently wi'ong to further increase their action by withdrawing the 
blood and thus lowering the blood pressure. A number of poisonous 
plants have this eft'ect upon stock, and whei'e they have been eaten 
stinmlants are plainly indicated as the proper remedy. If, on the 
other hand, the symptoms of poisoning are those of an increased blood 
pressure accompanied by cerebral excitement and a hard, wiry pulse, 
bleeding' might furnish temporary relief. Notwithstanding the conti- 
dent manner in which herders and cow))oys speak of the beneficial 
effects of bleeding in all cases of jioisoning it remains very doubtful 
whether the practice is to be reconuuended in any case. It may be 
safel}" asserted that the practice of bleeding indiscriminately does 
mor(^ harm than good. 

It is a (juite gencn-al practice, also, to give melted lard or fat pork in 
any case of stock poisoning by plants and especially in case of bloat. 
One of the well-known effects of these substances is a more or less 
decided cathartic action, and this action is desirable in so far as it helps 
the animal to eliminate the unabsorbed parts of the poisonous plant. 
A further beneficial action of the lard may consist in the hindrance to 
the absorption of the poisonous alkaloids ])y the foi'mation of a tem- 
porary oily coating upon tiie stomach wall. In cases where the 



42 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

poisoning- is not .severe iiiid the syinptoins not specially N'iolciit it is 
prol)al)le that liberal () aiitities of lard administered soon after the 
symptoms appear ma}' assist materially in l)ringin<j;' a})Out recovery. 

Many stockmen administer drenches of soda indiscriminately in 
almost all cases of poisoning. But soda being an alkaline snl)stance 
has primarily the effect of neutralizing any acid condition of the 
stomach. If a fermentation with an alkaline reaction were alreadj^ in 
process in the stomach it is difficult to see how soda could have any 
beneficial effect. In cases of bloat from eating large (juantities of 
clover or alfalfa soda seems frequently to have beneffcial effects. 

Vinegar is another remedy which is often applied in case of stock 
poisoning. This substance is given in cases where for any reason it is 
suspected that the stomach contents are strongly alkaline. Inider 
such circumstances it might be expected to counteract the alkaline 
condition. One stockman informed us that he usually gave both soda 
and Adnegar siumltaneously, hoping thereby to counteract whatever 
condition was present in the stomach, whether alkaline or acid. It is 
quite unlikely that any beneficial results would come from such a pro- 
cedure, since the soda and vinegar woidd neutralize each other. 

PERMANGANATE OF POTASH AS A CHEMICAf, ANTTDOTK. 

It will be o])se7'\ed from the foregoing account of the popular 
remedies employed by stockmen that they have no general, simple, 
and relia])le rule for selecting antidotes or for the application of 
remedial measures. This deficiency may be supplied to a large exten.t 
by adopting the regular use of a solution of the permanganate of 
potash, which, as will be shown later, is a very effective antidote in 
some cases of poisoning by plants and chemical couqxnuids of plant as 
well as of animal and mineral origin. Besides being efficacious, its 
administration is so simple and its mode of action so easily understood 
that we do not hesitate to recommend it as an antidote to ])e seriously 
considered in certain combinations in almost all cases of the poisoning 
of stock by plants. 

Under the names of Condy's Huid and mineral chameleon, the per- 
manganate of potash, on account of its powerful oxidizing properties, 
was first introduced in 1856 by Mr. Condy, of England, as a disinfect- 
ant or wash for ulcers and festering skin diseases, and for sanitary 
purposes, such as the destruction of fflth germs and their poison- 
ous products. It was prescribed internally as a remedy for diabetes 
without success as early as 1853. But its internal use as an oxidizing 
agent was not strongly advocated until 1864 and 1S66, when Madamet^ 
and Muter" published comprehensive articles alleging the Aalue of an 

^Sur I'emploi therapeutique du permanganate de potasse. Thesis, pp. 30, Stras- 
burg. 1864. 

■■'The alkalmo ])ennangaiuites and their inrdiciiial uses, pii. 4S, Uinio., London. 
1866. 



PERMANGANATE OF POTASH AS A CHEMICAL ANTIDOTK. 48 

a({ueous solutioD of the salt in lit-aling' \arious stoiiiat'li and iiitestitial 
as well as general diseases, and in cleansing the system from foul 
matter. No ill consequences attended such use even when compara- 
tively large doses of the solution were taken. 

The use of the permanganate salt solution as a chemical antidote to 
oxidize organic poisons which might accidentally get into the stomach 
was suggested by Muter, but no effort to utilize his suggestion was 
made until 1881, when Prof. J. B. Lacerda,' of Rio Janeiro, Brazil, 
announced the result of his investigations relative to the hypodermic 
use of the salt as an antidote for snake bites. Lacerda's paper was 
widely copied in France and throughout Europe, and as a result per- 
manganate of potash, especially in alkaline solution, is still regarded 
as a most efficient antidote against the poison of various snakes if 
promptly injected into the wound. Some persons w^hose duty it is 
occasionally to handle poisonous snakes always have the means to 
apply this remedy at hand when there is danger of being bitten. 

Chemists huve long been familiar with the rapid decomposition 
which is caused in many organic compounds ))y permanganate of 
potash. In 1886 Beckurts and List' showed that several very poison- 
ous alkaloids, such as brucine, veratrine. conine, and nicotine, were 
instanth" decomposed by it, while still others were oxidized in varying 
periods of time. The authors did not, however, suggest that the salt 
had any value as an antidote. 

In 1891 Antal'' showed that the dilute solution of permanganate of 
potash was an efficient antidote against the effects of phosphorus, 
which was oxidized by it in the stomach to phosphoric acid, a compar- 
atively nonpoisonous substance. Again in 18i>2 the same investigatoi" 
showed that this salt was a valuable antidote in cases of poisoning due 
to strychnine, colchicine, muscarine (the poison of the fly amanita, 
A)iianita niuscaria), the oil of sabine, and oxalic acid. He also sug- 
gested that it would probabh^ prove of great value in human cases of 
poisoning from many compounds of either animal or plant origin. In 
ever}' case a dilute solution of the antidote was given by way of the 
mouth. No experiments were made upon stock. 

Since the publication of Antal's work other investigators have 
employed dilute solutions of the permanganate of potash, generally 
without combination with any other substances, in case of poisoning 
from coronillin, prussic acid, atropine, aconitine, nicotine, curarine, 
strychnine, and morphine. Its use for all of these compounds was 
attended with success in experiments made upon animals, but as yet 
there has been but little chance, except in case of morphine and of 
phosphorus, to substantiate its value by clinical treatment sufficiently 

'Compt. rend. Acad. sci. Par., vol. 93, pp. 466-469. 1881. 
-DniggiHts' Circular, vol. 30, p. 176. 1886. (From Pharm. Zeit.) 
^Orvosi Hetilap., vol. .35, pp. 591, 592, and 606,607. 1891. 



44 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

to warrant its u.se to the exclusion of other antidotes. In case of 
some of these substances the comparative slowness of the oxidation, 
as observed in chemical experiments with the pure salt, does not war- 
rant its use. It has been asserted that hypodermic injections of the 
permanganate are of value in antidotino- the etfects of poisons which 
have already passed into the general circulation. But from a purely 
theoretic standpoint this does not seem probable and, moreover, the 
clinical results do not seem to warrant the statement. 

The value of permanganate of potash depends almost exclusivelv on 
its strong oxidizing power. When taken into the stomach it is 
reduced or destroyed more or less quickly acco^'ding to the nature and 
quantity l)oth of the food and of the stomach contents in general. To 
be at all efficacious as an antidote the solution must of course react 
upon all or a great part of the poison before it acts upon the other 
contents of the stomach. It is evident, therefore, that the more rap- 
idly it reacts upon any poisonous sul)stance in the presence of the 
other organic matter usually contained in the stomach, the more 
eflfective it must be as an antidote for that substance. For instance, 
Dr. William Moor' has shown by experiment that if to a solution of 
one grain of morphine sulphate, dissolved in an ounce of water, and 
250 grains of the white of egg, one grain of the permanganate of 
potash, dissolved in an ounce of water, be added, the morphine will 
be immediately destroyed without the albumen being atl'ected. To 
convince the medical fraternity of the practical value of the antidote 
he semipublicly swallow^ed 3 grains of morphine sulphate followed 
in about ;-)0 seconds by 4 grains of potassium permanganate. No ill 
effects were observed, although the dose taken would ordinarily have 
proved fatal. In order to obtain any results with the antidote it is 
absolutely necessary that the poison should be in the stomach or in the 
intestinal canal when the antidote is given. It can not when taken 
either into the ])lood oi- into the stomach react on the poison which has 
already been absorl)ed into the general circulation unless, as modern 
investigation has show n is sometimes the case, the poison is eliminated 
from th(^ l)lood by the cells in the glandular lining of the stomach. 
In an investigation made by Prof. Edward Hitzig and quoted l)y 
Dr. Moor, the former took from the stomach of a dog half of the 
morphine which had been given it subcutaneously. As these poisons 
are real)sorlx'd from the stomach and intestines and pass again into 
the stomach, it is evidently advisable in such cases to repeat the admin- 
istration of the antidote one or more times at short intervals (of about 
a half hour), until all of the symptoms have disappeared. 

It was stated above that the permanganate of potash is destroyed in 
the stomach more or less rapidly according to the nature and quantity 
:»f the material contained along with it. It is highly important to 



'New York Medical Reporter, vol. 45, pp. 200, 201. 1894. 



pp:kmamganate of tutash as a chemical antidote. 45 

recognize the fact that this rapidity may be favored l)y tiie presence 
of certain compounds. It is known that some complex oroanic sul)- 
stances are more readily decomposed by the permanganate salt in 
alkaline solution than with acids, but it is believed that the reverse 
is the case with a great majority of poisonous compounds. In general, 
the oxidation is not only more rapid in the case where an acid is pres- 
ent but it is also more complete, a larger amount of oxygen being- 
made available for the purpose. lu some instances the amount of 
oxvgen liberated with the acid is nearl}^ twice as great as with the 
alkali.' 

Almost all of the purely medical investigators have failed to appre- 
ciate the full value of this joint use of other substances with the per- 
manganate solution in favoring a more rapid and complete reaction. 
No one has laid particular stress upon the point, although Antal in his 
first paper suggested that the use of A^inegar or lemon juice would 
result in the liberation of more oxygen from the permanganate. In 
the case of the phosphorus poison, however, he considered the acid 
unessential, and he did not make any use of the idea in his other work. 
Schlagdenhautfen and Reeb" also noted, in 1893, that in test-tube exper- 
iments the decomposition of coronillin, the poisonous glucoside of a 
European leguminous plant known as Coronllla xcorpioUiex.^ was has- 
tened not only b}^ the presence of sulphuric acid but by that of car- 
bonate of soda and various salts, such as the sulphates of potassium and 
sodium, phosphate of soda, and common salt (sodium chloride), but he 
made no use of the suggestion, other than to show how the reaction 
might lie favored when the permanganate was injected into the blood, 
this fluid being alkaline and containing all of the salts above-mentioned. 
Dr. Moor has suggested an addition of sulphuric acid or white (not 
red) vinegar to form a salt in cases where morphine, an insoluble alka- 
loid, is in the stomach, the idea in this case being to get the alkaloid 
into a soluble condition, in which case it will, as is the case with many 
alkaloids, more readily unite with other compounds. 

In all of our own experiments aluminum sulphate, a common salt, 



^This is shown by the following equations: 

2 KMn04+2 KH0=2 K,MnO,^H,0+0 
2 KMnO^+3 H^SO.^KjSO^-f 2 MnSO^+S H,0+5 O 
The soluble potassium manganate which is immediately formed in the first reaction 
is gradually decomposed into the presence of water to the peroxide of manganese, 
which is precipitated into caustic potash and into oxygen. Thus: 
2 K2Mn04+2 H20=2 Mn02+4 KHO+2 O 
As seen in the second equation, the permanganate is at once decomposed into 
manganese sulphate, a soluble salt representing the lowest oxide of manganese, and 
at the same time a larger quantity of oxygen is liberated than in the first case, the 
proportion for the complete reaction being three molecules for the alkali to five for 
the acid. 
"Journ.der Pharmacie von Elsass-Lothringeii, vol.20, pp. 321-325. 1893. 



46 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

obtainable at any drug store, was used with the permanganate of pot- 
ash on the ground that it is acid in its reac^tion and can be far more 
readily and safely used by stockmen than acids can. No experiments 
were made with the permanganate in alkaline or in neutral solutions, 
because the results obtained with the acid salt were wholly satisfactory 
and we desired to utilize the full oxidizing effect of the permanganate. 
An animaPs stomach is usually acid in reaction, but it was feared that 
on account of the general alkaline condition of the water which is 
drunk freel}' by stock in Montana, the stomachs of some animals 
might not be sufficiently acid to insure the complete oxidation of the 
permanganate solution. 

W. D. Zoethout ^ has shown that the fatal effect of some toxic sub- 
stances, such as potassium cyanide and atropine, is hastened in the case 
of a certain low form of unicellular protozoan life known as Para- 
moeclwn aurelia^ if an acid is present at the same time and is retarded 
by the presence of the alkali, sodium hydrate. The effect is purely 
physiological. This retarding value has not as yet been conffrmed in 
an experimental way upon animals; still it is quite possible that the 
extended use by the stockmen of Montana of sodium carbonate, the 
physiological equivalent of sodium hydrate, as an antidote to the poison 
of plants may really be a practical demonstration of the matter. On 
this account, also, it may be advisable in some instances to use with the 
permanganate an alkali instead of an acid. In case the oxidation is not 
completed in the stomach the alkali might tend to retard, if it did not 
completely offset, the effects of the toxic compound already absorbed 
into the system. It is certain, however, that in case of death can)as 
and larkspur, the two most important groups of poisonous plants in 
Montana, it is advisable to use the permanganate in acid solution, or, 
more conveniently, with aluminum sulphate. Our experiments with 
this salt mixture are described under death camas, larkspur, and false 
hellebore. Although not so extended as we could wish, they indicate 
that the antidote will prove to be generally successful in cases of poi- 
soning caused by these plants, and we do not hesitate to recommend it 
as an emergency antidote in all cases of plant poisoning, especially in 
those which are observed shortly after the plants have been eaten. 
Other antidotes nuist be relied upon if a fatal dose has already been 
absorbed from the stomach. 

Sheepmen have a great advantage ovi'r cattlemen in the use of this 
antidote, because sheep, being constantly herded, are soon detected when 
poisoned. It takes considerable time for the poison to be extracted 
from the various parts of the plant eaten and to be absorbed from the 
stomach, so that if the antidote is administered immediately, as would 
naturally be the case, there is an excellent chance to destroy most of 



'Science, n. ser., vol. S, pp. 776-778. 1898. 



DIRECTIONS FOR USIISO PERMANGANATE OF POTASH. 47 

the ])()ison lieforc it is ;i})S()rl)('(l. Tt would he advisable, on account of 
the coarse plant particles which are found in an animal's stomach and 
tlu^ conse([uent slow process of extraction, that the permanganate and 
aluminum mixture should be administered again after an interval of 
perhaps a half hour, but this did not seem to be necessar}' in our 
experiments. The necessity should, in each ease, be determined b}^ the 
effect of the previous dose. If the animal is at first relieved and thefl 
succumbs again to the symptoms the dose should be repeated. 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING PERMANGANATE. 

In case of poisoning by plants, especially by death camas and the 
larkspur, a solution containing equal weights of permanganate of 
potash and sulphate of aluminum should be administered at once. 
For adult sheep, take, according to the weight of the animal, from 
5 to 10 grains of each of these compounds dissolved in water and 
give as a drench. The same dose should be given to hogs. Fifteen 
to 20 g-rains are required for horses and from 30 to 60 for cattle. 
These doses are for adults; for very young animals (from 2 to 4 
months old) the dose should ])e made proportionately smaller. In 
making these solutions the water used should be sufficient for drench- 
ing purposes and may ^'ary from a pint to a quart, or even more. 
The water should he pure well or spring water which is not too 
strongly alkaline; the chemicals should be very finely powdered to 
insure rapid and complete solution, and care should be taken that they 
are entirely dissolved before the solution is used. For emergency in 
case a large number of animals should be poisoned at the same time, 
five hundred or a thousand doses of the dry finely powdered salts 
should be kept at hand for immediate use. There is little danger 
even within the wide limits given in the last paragraphs of adminis- 
tering an excessive dose of this antidote. In one case as much as 8i^o 
grains of each salt was given within one and one-half hours to a 
2-pound rabbit without causing any ill effect. It is very necessary, 
however, to observe one precaution. All of the salt 7nixtu7'e given to 
the animal must he in solution. The solid particles, if swallowed, will 
stick to the walls of the throat or stomach and cause intense irritation 
and may kill the animal. A few fatal cases of human poisoning are 
on record which were caused in this way. Since the solution of the 
permanganate of potash, owing to the intensity of its purplish color 
even in dilute solutions, is almost opaque, the only practical way to 
note whether all of the salt is in solution or not is to carefully pour off 
the liquid occasionally after it has been allowed to stand a minute or 
two and to see if there is still a crystalline residue. As neither of the 
salts are very rapidly soluble in water, especially when not finely 
powdered, it may require several minutes before they are completely 
dissolved. 



48 STUCK-FOISOISriNG PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

METHOD OF DKENCHINC. 

The sheep is u docile and easily managed animal, so that no method 
of applyino- remedies presents any difficulties. The only (juestion in 
this connection to be considered by the sheep owner is that oi" the con- 
venience and rapidity of application. In cases where hundreds of 
sheep are poisoned simultaneously no direct remedy is practicaljle 
which requires special skill or any great length of time for its appli- 
cation. Probably the method which will prove most convenient for 
the stockman is that of drenching. For this purpose a cow horn, 
long-necked bottle, or regular drenching bottle ma}^ be used. 

In drenching, the sheep should l)e set upright and care should be 
exercised that the solution is not spilled or wasted. With but little 
experience the drench may be given rapidly with no danger to the 
sheep. Where any considerable number of sheep arc poisoned at one 
time it will he found convenient to dissolve a large quantit}^ of potas- 
sium permanganate in such proportions that an amount of the solution 
convenient for drenching, say a pint, will contain the required amount 
of potassium permanganate. This substance is a powerful agent and 
forms a somewhat explosive mixture when combined with organic 
substances, and therefore must not be mixed with sirup or similar 
substances. Otherwise, no special precaution is to be observed in its 
use. It would, of course, be a strong irritant if taken as a salt or in 
a concentrated solution, liut no injurious eft'ects were noted when solu- 
tions of the strength recommended were gi\en to lambs two weeks old. 

The difficulties of drenching horses and cattle are not great in case 
of dairy cows and family horses. In treating range stock, however, 
it will be necessary, of course, to rope the animal before administering 
the drench. 

On account of the physiological a(^tion of a few poisonous plants in 
causing paralysis of the throat, or because of the difficulty in managing 
an animal, it is sometimes impossible in the case of sheep, cattle, and 
other ruminating animals to force the antidote down the throat. In this 
case the solution should be injected directly into the stomach through 
the walls of the body. As is well known, the stomach in ruminating 
animals is joined without any intervening spaces, as in the case of 
horses, to a certain part of the body wall. This circumstance renders 
it safe by use of the trochar and canula, sold by dealers in veterinary 
instruments for the purpose (or even a common knife), to make an 
opening into the stomach and to inject the antidote. It is a common 
practice thus to perforate the stomach of a cow or sheep to relieve gas 
pressure in case of bloat, and the same method is occasionally employed 
in administering medicines. A full account of the practice, with direc- 
tions for locating the particular area for the incision, is given in the 
directions for the treatment of liloat. 



OCCASIONS AND CHARACTER OF BLOAT. 49 

TYMPANITES OR BLOAT. 

It its well known to stockmen that a number of the legumes may 
produce serious or even fatal cases of bloating in sheep and cattle. 
The plants which most often cause this trouble are alfalfa, white clover, 
and red clover. As a rule these plants produce bloat only when eaten 
in a green condition. A few cases of tympanites, however, have been 
reported as due to eating one or the other of these plants in the form 
of hay. Stockmen frequently allow cattle and sheep to graze upon 
clover and alfalfa meadows in the late fall after the stock has been 
brought in from the range. At such times the clover and alfalfa 
usually have a height of about 4 to 6 inches and are still growing more 
or less vigorousl}^ according to the prevailing temperature. Cattle 
and sheep frequently suffer from various digestive disturbances which 
are due to the sudden change of diet from the dry grass upon the 
ranges to the green succulent growth of the 3^oung clover and alfalfa. 

In regard to the tendency to produce bloating, there seems to be lit- 
tle difference between the cultivated clover and alfalfa. There is, how- 
ever, a strong belief among a large number of stockmen that these 
plants do not cause bloat except under peculiar conditions. It is fre- 
quently asserted that green alfalfa and clovers may be eaten with 
impunity by cattle or sheep at all times except when moistened by dew 
or rain. Other stockmen believe that these plants are more likely to 
produce bloating when eaten immediately after a slight frost. No 
experiments have been conducted which would either prove or dis- 
prove these beliefs. 

It appears to be well established that cattle and sheep msij become 
accustomed to eating these plants in a green state so that no bad effects 
are produced bj^ feeding upon them. It is, perhaps, to be considered 
unwise to allow stock which are not accustomed to these plants in a 
green state to feed upon them exclusively. A better plan would be to 
permit such animals to graze upon them for a short time each day 
until the digestive organs have become accustomed to the change of 
diet. 

A considerable number of sheep and cattle die every year from bloat- 
ing, and this trouble becomes quite serious at times. In the case of 
bloat the production of gas in the first stomach of sheep and cattle 
goes on so rapidly that the animal may die within from fifteen min- 
utes to two hours unless assistance is rendered by the attendants. 
With sheep the timely detection of bloating is rendered easy by the 
fact that these animals are kept under the constant attention of a 
herder. With cattle the matter stands very differently. Little atten- 
tion is paid to their movements, and consequently it frequently hap- 
pens that cases of bloating among them are not noticed until after the 
death of vhe animal. 

S. Doc. 160 4 



50 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

The remedies in common use by herders and cowboys for prevent- 
ing fatal results from bloating are doses of lard or fat pork, and 
paunching or rumenotomy. The usual method of making an incision 
in the stomach is by means of a long knife with a blade an inch or more 
in width. The knife is plunged directly through the body wall and 
into the stomach with a single stroke. The gases are thus allowed to 
escape through this opening and the pressure within the digestive 
organs is relieved. Some stockmen prefer to use the trochar and 
canula, which are especially designed for such cases and are for sale 
by dealers in veterinary instruments. The chief advantage is that the 
opening made by this instrument is much smaller than that produced 
by the knife, heals more readily, and is less likely to result in any 
complications. 

With regard to the value of these remedies for bloating it may be 
stated that they are exceedingly effective and quite safe in the hands 
of the average herder and cowboy. A few cases were observed in 
sheep where the herder had cut a slit of the length of 5 or 6 inches 
through the walls of the stomach, thus rendering it almost impossible 
for the wound to heal without the use of sutures. It is entirely unnec- 
essary, however, to make incisions of greater length than 2 inches 
either in sheep or cattle to allow the gas to escape readily. In cases 
where the formation of gas does not take place rapidly and where the 
animals are noticed as soon as they begin to bloat the liberal applica- 
tion of cathartics is often quite sufficient to check the process of fer- 
mentation. Large doses of soda may also be given in connection with 
cathartics. Where, on the other hand, the production of gas has gone 
so far that the animal is unable to walk, immediate relief is necessary 
in order to prevent fatal consequences. The gas pressure upon the 
inside of the first stomach may become so great as to interfere with 
respiration and the action of the heart, or even to rupture the dia- 
phragm or the stomach walls. The only way in which this pressure 
may be relieved is to make an incision directly into the stomach 
through that part of its wall which is adherent to the body wall, as 
alread}^ explained. 

A number of stockmen have inquired concerning the exact point at 
which the incision should be made. The proper place is located upon 
the left side of the body at a point equidistant from the last rib, the 
angle of the hip bone, and the vertebral column. After a little 
experience it will be easily found. 

NONPOISONOUS PLANTS WHICH ARE MECHANICALLY 
DANGEROUS. 

There occur in Montana, as indeed throughout the entire West, 
occasional losses of stock which are due to plants acting in a purely 
mechanical way, no poisonous substance being present. We refer to 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept of Agr. 



Plate I. 




Death Camas (Zygadenus venenosus). 



DEATH CAMAS. 51 

the penetrating action of the sharp barbed awns of the porcupine 
grass {Stipa spartea) and sqiiirreltail {Ilordeum juhatum). Both of 
these grasses make good fodder if cut when they are still young, but 
when nearly mature the awns easily separate and frequently get into 
the mouth and throat or the eyes and ears of stock, where they pen- 
etrate into the tissues and give rise ultimately to ulcers which cause 
such intense suffering to the animal that it must sometimes be killed. 
The squirreltail grass is well known throughout the State; the porcu- 
pine grass is not nearl}^ so common. 

PLANTS POISONOUS TO STOCK IN MONTANA, OR SO REPUTED. 

MOST IMPORTANT POISONOUS SPECIES. 

DEATH CAMAS. ^ 

{Zygadenus venenosus S. Wats.) 

Other names: Poison camas, lobelia, squirrel food, wild onion, 
poison sego, poison sego lily, mystery grass. 

DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTKIBUTION. 

A smooth, simple-stemmed perennial with a coated, onion-like bulb, 
narrow, linear leaves, and a short terminal cluster of yellowish-green 
dowers. The plant grows everywhere in Montana in moderately 
moist places on open ranges. Outside of Montana it is found from 
British Columbia to South Dakota, Nebraska, Utah, and California. 

Of all the various plants which are known or suspected to poison 
stock in early spring in Montana the death camas is undoubtedly the 
most important. This plant is found in every county of the State, 
and on every stock range which we had opportunity to visit. It 
usually occurs in great abundance in the localities where it is found, 
and these localities are, unfortunately, as a rule, moderately moist 
places, where the grass starts earliest in the spring. Another reason 
why this plant has to be considered the most important poisonous one 
concerned in cases of spring poisoning is that it starts up very early, 
usually somewhat in advance of the native grasses. A third reason is 
that its leaves are narrow and resemble grass leaves, though at the 
same time slightly thicker and more succulent than grass. These 

' Under the name death camas we mean to include those Montana forms which 
for many years have been known as Zygadenus venenosus. These have recently been 
separated into several new species, which were described by Dr. P. A. Rydberg in 
the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, vol. 27, pp. 533 to 536, 1900. Our speci- 
mens were identified by Rydberg as the species which he has named Z. gramineu3 and 
Z. intermedius. Another authority to whom the specimens were submitted was of the 
opinion that our specimens belong to a single species. It is quite possible that they 
are distinct from Z. venenosus, but they have not been so considered in making up . 
our notes. 



52 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

facts, combined with the fact that all parts of the plant are poisonous, 
make it apparent that in death camas the stockman has a dangerous 
enemy. 

The preferred habitat or location in which the death camas usually 
grows is the familiar .shallow ravine, or "coulee, "which occurs in large 
numbers on the sides of foothills and mountains and upon the plains. 
So far as our observations go, the death camas does not grow in the 
driest situations of the level plain. It often grows abundantly, how- 
ever, on high bench lands, in the shallow depressions found in such 
locations. After a little experience in the study of the habitat of this 
plant, one can detect at long distances the particular pLices in which 
it is likel}^ to be found. 

In Montana the death camas grows at altitudes varying from 1,900 
to 8,000 feet, or, in other words, at all altitudes at which sheep are 
grazed in the State. Ordinarily the death camas does not grow along 
banks of streams, or in swampy places. It may be said to prefer local- 
ities m which a moderate amount of moisture is found as the result of 
slow seepage from the surrounding country. It is even more abundant 
on pasture lands in Montana than is the purple larkspur {Delphinlioii 
hi color). On many ranges one could not walk ten feet in a straight 
line anywhere without tramping upon at least a half dozen of these 
plants. 

As already indicated, death camas, although limited in its distribu- 
tion to particular localities on the range, nevertheless occurs in great 
abundance in these localities. It would, therefore, be an eas}^ matter 
for sheep, in a short time, to find and eat a sufficient number of death 
camas plants to produce fatal results. In collecting material for feed- 
ing experiments, we dug up 250 in the course of a half hour, and it is 
quite possible that a sheep might eat the plant even more rapidly in 
localities where it was especially abundant. 

HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 

The earlier explorers of the Western, and especially of the North- 
western, United States frequently mention the poisonous character of 
the bulbs of one or the other of the various species of Zygadenus, and 
refer to them as poison camas ov poison sego^ in order to distinguish 
them from bulbs of two other groups of plants, Quamasia and Calo- 
chortus, which were commonly known as camas and wild sego, and were 
much used for food both by the Indians and by travelers.^ Accounts 
of the poisoning of stock from eating the roots and leaves of various 
species have but recentl}" been sent in to this Department. These were 
from northern California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Utah, Idaho, 



• The Ogallala Sioux Indians of South Dakota call the plant peji wakan, which, 
being interpreted, means "mystery grass." The real significance of the name is not 
known. 



DEATH CAMAS. 53 

and Montana, and from as far east as South Dakota. Our attention . 
was particularly called to the abundance and wide distribution of Z. 
vemmosm in Montana, and to its fatal effect upon stock, by Mr. Thomas 
B. Magee, Browning, Montana. Prof. F. H. Hillman, of the Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station of Nevada, has caned attention in two 
short newspaper bulletins to the poisonous nature of the wild sego 
{Z. jxiniculatus S. Wats). 

It is impossible to state definitely whether the parts of the plant 
above ground or the bulbs are responsible for the most cases of poi- 
soning. Feeding experiments show conclusively^ that both the leaves 
and bulbs are poisonous. Apparently, however, the bulbs are more 
actively poisonous than the leaves. Whether the sheep eat the bulbs 
of death camas or not, depends almost entirely on the condition of 
the ground in each individual case. If the ground is at all dry, or 
only moderately moist, it is absolutely impossible for sheep to pull up 
the bulb with the stem. We had experimented with hundreds of death 
camas plants for the purpose of determining this point, and had come 
to the provisional conclusion that it is impossible to pull up the bulbs 
with the stems. In collecting some plants immediately after a heavy 
rain storm, however, it was found that the bulbs could readil}^ be 
pulled through the soft ground. About three out of five plants pulled 
in the ordinary manner came up with the bulbs attached. 

Dui'ing the season of 1900, sheep died from eating death camas at 
various dates in the month of . May and in the earlier part of June. 
The earliest date was April 25, and the greatest amount of poisoning 
occurred between May 5 and May 20. From notes made in the field 
it appears that 636 sheep died during the season of 1900 from the 
effect of eating Zygadenus, while the total number poisoned by this 
plant was 3,030. About 21 per cent of the number affected died, while 
the remaining 79 per cent recovered. This death rate may be slightly 
lower or higher than the average rate for this plant, direct observa- 
tions on this point being limited to this single year. The figures as 
given are based on the death or recovery of adult sheep, and do not 
include fatalities among lambs. The death rate among lambs was in 
manjr instances considerably higher than that of the adult sheep, and 
this observation applies to lambs which had not begun to eat grass or 
other plants, but which were poisoned by the ewe's milk. It is of 
interest to observe that a considerable number of lambs died from the 
effects of the milk of ewes which were themselves only slightly affected 
by the death camas. The death rate is, therefore, in realit}^ slightly 
higher than the figures already given would indicate, for the reason, 
as alread}^ mentioned, that deaths among the lambs were not included 
in the figures, and for the further reason that the death of an ewe at 
a time when the lamb is not older than 2 weeks means the ultimate 
death of the lamb. It is the general observation of sheep men that 



54 STOCK-POISOKING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

lambs seldom begin to eat anything before the age of 1 month, and 
that they are unable to make a good growth if deprived of the mother's 
milk before the age of 3 months. The death rate among sheep from 
eating Zygadenus varied to a considerable extent in different bands; 
for instance, in one band 2,000 sheep were poisoned and 100 died; in 
another 200 were poisoned and 90 died, while in a third 100 were 
poisoned and 48 died. It will thus be seen that the death rate varied 
from 5 to 48 per cent. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

In order to ascertain the approximate and relative weights of the 
bulbs and the leafy tops at flowering time, five fresh medium-sized 
plants were secured June 6. The total weight of these was 32.7 
grams. The five bulbs, including li inches of the stem, weighed 15.2 
grams, while the remainder weighed 17.5 grams. The average weight 
for the plant was therefore about 6^ grams, of the bulb 3i, and of the 
leaf and floral parts 3i grams. These bulbs were not bitter or repul- 
sive to the taste. Bulbs collected in other parts of the State were 
quite bitter, especially after a few moments"' chewing. It is possible 
that the taste varies with the stage of growth and the locality. The 
leaves of the flowering plants are bitter, and are probably on this 
account generally refused by animals. Several attempts were made 
to persuade horses to eat a single spray of the leaves, buc always 
without success. Only once did one allow the plant to get into its 
mouth, and then the leaves were concealed in a large bunch of fresh 
lupine leaves. 

A supply of plants gathered on the evening of May 22, when the 
flowering stem was still crisp and in bud, was kept turgid over night 
and then separated into two portions — the well -cleaned bulbs, includ- 
ing about an inch of the stem, which weighed 45.6 grams, and the tops, 
which weighed 55.5 grams. These were ground separately in a sausage 
mill and then macerated for about an hour with about 100 cubic centi- 
meters of lukewarm distilled water. Both leaves and roots had a 
decidedly soapy feeling when mashed up with water in the hands. 
The pure juice was distinctly irritating when left on the hands for 
several minutes. The aqueous extract of the leaves was of a clear 
green color, that of the < roots turbid and milky. Both were strained 
through a linen sack and diluted to 110 cubic centimeters. 

Experiment 1. — On May 23, at 2 p. m., 1 cubic centimeter of the 
leaf extract was injected hypodermically into a rabbit weighing li 
pounds. At the end of fifteen minutes there was a decided appear- 
ance of uneasiness, the breathing was shallow, and the head moved 
rythmically, as if the animal were dizzy. Very shortly afterwards the 
animal fell over in a convulsive fit and then ran forcibly into a wall, 
thus showing that its eyesight was affected. The breathing speedily 



EXPERIMENTS WITH DEATH CAMAS. 55 

became irregular, but the heart beat was about normal. The princi- 
pal poisonous action was undoubtedly on the lungs. The hind legs 
were paralyzed, and soon the animal became entirely motionless, as if 
narcotized. It was sensitive to needle pricks, but would permit its 
hind legs to be placed in unnatural positions. The heart action was 
good during most of the time. The breathing graduallj^ improved, 
but the rabbit remained motionless for several hours. Complete 
nervous prostration was apparent throughout the whole of the next 
day, the animal appearing as if narcotized. It ate no food, and died 
during the next night. 

Experiment 2. — One cubic centimeter of the same leaf extract pre- 
viously used was administered on May 22, at 4.10 p. m., subcutaneously 
to a 2-pound rabbit. The first S3anptom, a marked choking action 
with an oft-repeated backward motion of the head, appeared at 4.27. 
At 4.35 it was noticed that the breathing was irregular and slow, and 
that the animal was very much disinclined to move. At 5 the breath- 
ing was still very much impaired, but the heart action was good. The 
rabbit had been motionless since 4.35. At 6 it was reported to be in 
nearly the same condition, and on the next morning the recovery was 
practically complete. 

Experitnent 3. — One cubic centimeter of the root extract was admin- 
istered hypodermically to a rabbit weighing about 2 pounds, on May 
22, at 4.45 p. m. At 5 there was a slight throbbing or dizzy motion 
of the head. At 5.2 it was walking about in a lively manner, but 
with a peculiar ambling gait, the fore leg having been partially para- 
lyzed. This was continued for about half an hour, the animal being 
not at all comfortable. At 6 it was reported to have been in a fair 
way to recovery. During the night it made its escape from the pen, 
and could not subsequently be recovered. 

Experiment Jf.. — Two cubic centimeters of the leaf extract was 
injected hypodermically into a 2-pound rabbit May 23, at 11 a. m. 
At 11.9 the choking began, and a little saliva began to run from the 
mouth. At 11.15 the breathing was irregular and slow, the animal 
having moved but little. At 11.17 it had spasms, falling backward 
and sidewise. At 11.20 it had scarcely enough energy to keep its nose 
off the floor or to stand. At about 11.27, while dozing, it fell back- 
ward in a spasm and lay prostrate on its stomach, with its head side- 
wise on the floor. Its hind legs were beyond control, its eyes were 
i-apidiy losing their luster, and it was gasping for breath. Another 
spasm occurred at 11.36, which was followed by gasping. The respi 
ration was, on the whole, very shallow. At 11.40 the rabbit was not 
sensitive to needle pricks. There was more gasping and another 
spasm. Two minutes later the pupils became contracted, and the 
rabbit died after three minutes. 

The post-mortem examination made immediately after death showed 



56 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

that the heart was full of dark, unaeraled blood and that the lungs, 
especially the left one, were also badly congested. The livau- was 
darker than usual, but the other organs were in good condition. 

Experiment 5. — Five cubic centimeters of the same leaf extract used 
in the preceding experiments was fed May 23, at 2 A p. m., through 
a rubber tube to a rabbit weighing 1 pound 10^ ounces. At 2.30, 
after having been running around as usual, it became noticeably 
quieter and showed a little irregularity of breathing. At 2.54 it was 
a little ill at ease. At 4 it appeared much brighter. Ten cubic centi- 
meters more of the solution was then administered. It rested quietly 
the remainder of the day, being much disinclined to move yet not 
strikingly ill at ease. The experiment was unfortunately terminated 
by the escape of the rabbit during the night. 

Experiment 6. — On May 25, 11.55 a. m., 16 cubic centimeters of 
the water extract of the leaves was fed to a rabbit weighing 1 pound 
12 ounces. At 12.5 the first sign of uneasiness was exhibited in a 
peculiar chewing motion of the mouth, which seemed to indicate burn- 
ing pain in that organ. This was followed by prolonged drowsiness, 
with an occasional rapid shaking of the head. There was no strongly 
marked difficulty in the breathing. At 1 the animal was walking around 
freely and eating, but it continued the head movements and its ears 
were depressed, showing that there was still considerable discomfort. 

At 1.15 15 cubic centimeters more of the extract was administered. 
At 3.10 and 3.30 the rabbit appeared well, and as it was sufficiently 
active to play with a piece of paper at the latter time the experiment 
was discontinued. The solution was too dilute for satisfactor}^ feeding 
experiments, the capacity of the stomachs of the rabbits used in the 
experiment being insufficient for a much larger dose. 

Experiment 7. — Fifty grams of the fresh leafy tops, about half the 
flowers of which had expanded, was ofl'ered at 5.25 p. m., June 6, to 
a rabbit weighing about a pound. As the animal was hungry, it ate 
some of the plants, flowers and all, quite readily, even though they 
were dry and uninviting in comparison with younger plants not yet in 
blossom. At 6, when the residue was weighed, only 13.1 grams had 
disappeared, so that this was the amount eaten. As, however, the 
first symptoms, which came on at 6, were strongly characteristic of 
the poisonous substance contained in the plant, it is quite probable 
that most of the 13.1 grams was eaten very shortly after 5.25 p. m. 

The first symptom was a pose much like that of a person who is 
about to sneeze, the animal resting on its hind feet with its front feet 
held close together in front of its face. Instead of sneezing, however, 
it threw its head backward again and again, often nearly losing its 
balance in so doing. There was an apparent dizziness, and the eye- 
sight was slightly impaired, for it once ran into the side of the cage. 
This was not, however, a marked symptom. The animal grated its 



EXPERIMENTS WITH DEATH CAMAS. 57 

teeth and was uneasy and restless. The pupils were considerably 
enlarged. At 0.7 a partial paralysis of the respiration was noted. 
The breathing was extremely slow and there was considerable chok- 
ing. At 10.10 the next morning, June 7, it ate food, although spar- 
ingly. It would walk and run of its own accord and in other wa3^s it 
afforded proof that it had very nearly recovered. 

At 2.40 the same day 50 grams more of the fresh leaves was offered 
to the same rabbit. It ate rapidly at first, but soon became dissatis- 
fied, and although very hungry, it refused to eat more. The exact 
amount eaten was not determined, nor many of the symptoms noted 
on account of an accident, A difficulty in the respiration was observed 
at 2.55, and Mr. Cockrell, who was watching the animal, thought that 
the respiratory symptoms were more pronounced after the animal had 
taken a good drink of water. This trouble was apparent throughout 
the day. Twenty-five grams of fresh leaves of flowering plants was 
offered to the same rabbit at about noon on June 8. The weight of 
the leaves left uneaten when compared with the weight of a check sub- 
jected to influences even more favorable to evaporation indicated that 
none were eaten. No further effects were noted except the continued 
defect in respiration, but the rabbit died during the night, probably 
from the combined effect of the several feedings. 

Exjperiment 8. — Three hundred cubic centimeters of a water extract, 
representing 300 grams of the fresh flowering tops and leaves, was fed 
to a sheep weighing about 65 pounds at 3.15 p. m. June 12. No 
effect whatever was noted up to 8 p. m. nor on the following day. 

Experiment 9. — The strongly expressed residue from the extract 
used in the preceding experiment was allowed to stand ovef night in 
such an amount of 50 per cent alcohol that after a very slight dilution 
on the same da}^ 1 cubic centimeter represented 1 gram of the fresh 
plant. One and one-half cubic centimeters, representing 1^ grams of 
the fresh plant, was administered hypodermically June 12 to a 40- 
ounce rabbit. This amount, although small, had a very marked effect, 
but was not fatal. The result warranted the institution of the two 
following experiments, which were made with the same extract. 

Expeft'lment 10. — Three hundred cubic centimeters of the 50 per 
cent alcoholic extract used in the preceding experiment was fed at 
12.21 p. m., June 14, to a sheep weighing about 50 pounds. Disre- 
garding the general symptoms due to alcohol, which were also observed 
in another sheep that received an equal amount of 47 per cent alcohol 
at the same time, the prominent characteristic effects were as follows: 
At 2.30 there was considerable frothing of green saliva at the mouth, 
which was accompanied by a gurgling of the throat and very labored, 
irregular breathing. There were but 12 inspirations a minute and 
sometimes two attempts at a single one. The pulse was about 160 a 
minute and strong. At 3.24 the sheep was becoming conscious, but 



58 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

was unable to rise, and it remained in this condition until after 7 p. m. 
The gurgling, labored respiration and sighing continued throughout 
that time, but the frothing ceased after an hour or so. The rectal 
temperature at 5.25 was 101.8. The animal had sufficiently recovered 
by the next morning to go out and graze with the remainder of the 
little band of which it was a member. 

Experiment _?.?.— Precisely the same amount of the same extract 
used in Experiment 10 was fed in the same way at 2.55 p. m. to a 
sheep weighing approximately the same, but before withdrawing the 
tube 25 cubic centimeters of a solution containing 1 per cent each of 
the permanganate of potash and sulphate of aluminum was poured 
into it and this was washed down into the stomach with water. A 
deep sleep soon came over the animal from which it did not awaken 
until after night, but although watched very carefully until past 7.15 
p. m. it did not exhibit any of the symptoms recorded for the previous 
experiment. 

Experiment 1%. — On May 21 two healthy sheep were placed in a 
corral and fed, respectively, 30 plants of death camas without the 
bulb and 20 with the bulb, or approximately 105 grams and 220 grams 
of these materials. These two sheep were not hungry and would 
not of their own accord eat the death camas when placed in a box near 
them. When the sheep were held, however, and the death camas 
placed in contact with their lips they ate it readily. One hour later 
symptoms of poisoning began to be manifested which were exactly 
identical with those previously observed in the field. The quantity of 
death camas fed to these two sheep was not quite sufficient to cause 
death, although they were seriously poisoned and required three days 
for a complete recovery from the effects. 

Experiment 13. — On June 8 two other sheep were fed each 40 death 
camas plants with bulbs, or approximately 440 grams. The same symp- 
toms were manifested in a more violent form, and both sheep died 
after the lapse of five and six hours respectively. The death camas 
plants fed to both these sheep were in full flower. At the time 
of this experiment the plants at the lower altitudes were already 
in seed and the leaves and stems were yellow and shriveled, but 
the plants used were collected at an altitude of about 6,000 feet, 
where they were in the prime of flowering. The plants employed in 
both experiments were therefore as nearly as possible in the same 
stage of growth. As these experiments were conducted in the field 
the means were not at hand for weighing accuratel3^ The weights as 
given above are calculated from average weights as previously deter- 
mined. It would therefore appear that the fatal dose for sheep is 
between one-half pound and 1 pound. 

Experiment llf.. — Remedies which were tried in this and the follow- 
ing experiment included hypodermic injections of strychnine in one- 



EXPERIMENTS WITH DEATH CAMAS. 59 

twentieth, one-tenth, and one-fifth grain doses, hypodermic injections 
of atropine in one-sixtictli and one-thirtieth grain doses, and solutions 
of potassium permanganate. The strychnine and atropine were given 
by means of the ordinary hypodermic syringe in diiferent parts of the 
body, usually behind the front leg in the bare area of skin at that point. 
The atropine was given both alone and with morphine, as is customary 
in human practice. The potassium permanganate was given in 4-grain 
doses, and each dose contained also 1 grain of aluminum sulphate. 
Both these substances were pulverized and dissolved in about a pint of 
water. Doses were given both as a drench and by means of direct 
injection through the body wall into the stomach. In some cases also 
the sheep were allowed to drink the solution. The results which were 
obtained did not indicate any advantage in favor of any method, for in 
all cases the solutions seemed to be equally effective, whether given as 
a drench, injected directly into the stomach, or as a drink. For inject- 
ing the solution directly into the stomach a large aspirating syringe 
was used. The solution when applied in this way was kept in a bottle 
connected by means of a rubber tube with the syringe. An ordinary 
trochar and canula were used for penetrating into the stomach. By 
means of this apparatus a half pint of the solution could be very quickly 
pumped into the stomach. The process requires, however, rather more 
time than the drenching method, and since the action of the solution 
was no more effective when injected directly into the stomach than 
when given as a drench, the drenching method will probably be pre- 
ferred by stockmen as being shorter and more convenient. 

The first experiment with these remedies and methods was made on 
May 15, 1900, on a sheep range near Great Falls. A number of sheep 
had been poisoned by Zygadenus two days previously. About 20 of 
the most severe cases had been hauled into a covered shed. Here the 
sheep were lying upon their sides in the condition of complete paralysis 
referred to in the description of the symptoms of poisoning from this 
plant. Five of the sheep were given hypodermic injections of strych- 
nine, 5 others similar injections of atropine, 5 others solutions of 
potassium permanganate, and the remaining 5 were left without treat- 
ment. Of the 5 sheep which were treated with potassium perman- 
ganate 2 were drenched, 2 others received direct injections into the 
stomach, and 1 was allowed to drink the solution from a small bucket. 
Of the 5 which were treated with strychnine, 2 sheep received one- 
twentieth grain, 2 one-tenth grain, and 1 one-fifth grain. Of the 5 
which were treated with atropine, 2 received one-sixtieth and 3 one- 
thirtieth grain. All these sheep were examined three hours later, 
when it was found that the 5 which had been given potassium perman- 
ganate were in a much improved condition and were able to walk. 
The herder, who watched the sheep during this period, stated that 



60 STOCK- POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

some of these 5 sheep had got up of their own accord, walked about 
for a few minutes, and then lain down again. The breathing of these 
sheep was much improved and regurgitation through the mouth and 
nostrils had ceased. The 5 sheep which were treated with strychnine 
were in a slightly better condition than before the treatment. Some 
improvement was noticeable in the pulse and respiration. None of 
them, however, could stand on their feet even when placed in that 
position. Of the 5 sheep which were treated with atropine, 2 had died, 
and the other 3 were not improved in their condition. Four out of 
the 5 sheep which were untreated were apparently in the same condi- 
tion as when previously inspected, while the fifth had died. The 4 
others died later. These experiments indicate that potassium perman- 
ganate is an efficient antidote for poisoning by death camas. Atropine, 
on the other hand, seems not to be indicated in these cases, while strych- 
nine seems to have only feeble power of antagonizing the action of 
death camas. All of the sheep which were treated with atropine, and 
all but 1 of those treated with strychnine, ultimatel}' died, while the 
5 sheep which received potassium permanganate made a complete 
recovery. 

To appreciate fully the force of the evidence, it should be considered 
that at the time when the three remedies mentioned above were applied 
the sheep were in a hopeless condition. Both the herder and the 
foreman gave it as their opinion that all of the 20 sheep would die if 
left to themselves. They all had been in a condition of complete 
paralysis for a period of from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. Potas- 
sium permanganate was used in these experiments as a chemical 
antidote on account of its oxidizing power, and a pronounced effect 
in counteracting the physiological action of the death camas was not 
expected. It was hoped that if given during the earl}^ stages of 
the poisoning while the most of the poisonous plant which had been 
eaten was still in the first stomach, the poisonous principle might be 
destroyed by its action before being absorbed into the blood. Not 
enough was known concerning its physiological action to lead one to 
expect that it would serve as a physiological antidote. The result 
would seem to indicate, however, that the ph3\siological action of 
potassium permanganate is to some extent antagonistic to that of death 
camas, and that at the same time its chemical action brings about 
prompt and complete destruction of the poisonous principles of this 
plant. In the cases of poisoning now under discussion it is evident 
that a considerable quantity of the poison must have been dissolved 
and absorbed into the blood at the time when the potassium perman- 
ganate was given, and this portion of the poison it was evidently 
impossible to destroy by any chemical in the stomach. If it should 
prove on further investigation that potassium permanganate has no 
physiological action antagonistic to that of death camas, we must 



SYMPTOMS OF POISONING WITH DEATH CAMAS. 61 

apparently conclude that sheep can recover from very severe cases of 
poisoning- bj' this plant, provided such quantity of the plant as still 
remains in the stomach is rendered nonpoisonous by chemical means, 
such as the use of potassium permanganate. 

Experiment 15. — On subsequent dates in the month of May potas- 
sium permanganate was given to 15 adult sheep and 20 lambs which 
had been poisoned by eating death camas. In all cases the animals 
were much improved by this treatment within two hours and the 
majority of them recovered ultimately, although reports have not 
been received on a few of the lambs. The lambs which received this 
treatment were from two weeks to one month old, and did not as yet 
eat any grass or other plants. The poison which they received was, 
therefore, contained in the mother's milk. The lambs were given 
from one-half gram to 1^ grams of the potassium permanganate, 
according to the size. The solutions were administered both as a 
drench and by direct injection into the stomach. The treatment was 
given in most cases immediately after the lamb had been suckled by 
the ewe. The potassium permanganate seemed to have a decidedly 
beneficial action in checking the digestive disturbances produced by 
the action of the death camas in the lambs. The stiffness of gait and 
other irregular muscular movements were also corrected within a few 
hours. 

SYMPTOMS AND EVIDENCES OF POISONING. 

The symptoms were remarkably uniform in the large number of 
cases observed, and the following description should enable any sheep 
raiser to recognize the cases of poisoning by death camas. The first 
signs of poisoning are a certain uneasiness and irregularity in the 
movements of the sheep. These irregularities rapidly become more 
and more pronounced, accompanied by incoordination of the muscular 
movements, spasms, and rapid breathing. Although sheep are highly 
excited under the influence of Zygadenus poisoning, the cerebral 
symptoms seldom constitute a condition of frenzy. It was readily 
observed that until a few minutes before death ewes were able to 
recognize their lambs, and indicated in other ways that they were not 
in any sense crazed. The later symptoms were those of complete 
motor paralysis, combined with an exceedingly rapid and shallow 
breathing and a frequent weak pulse. The duration of these different 
stages of the poisoning varied to a considerable extent and depended 
entirely upon the amount of death camas which the sheep had eaten. 
In cases where large quantities had been eaten the different symptoms 
succeeded one another rapidly, the spasms and labored breathing were 
very noticeable, and death resulted within from one to three hours 
after the first manifestations of poisoning. In many cases, however, 
the sheep passed through the first symptoms slowly, and after about 



62 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

ten or twelve hours became unable to walk, stand, or even raise their 
heads, remaining in this condition of complete muscular paral3^sis for 
a period of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. During this time 
the sheep, as just indicated, lay flat upon the side and did not move 
any voluntary muscle. The breathing was in these cases so shallow 
that it was scarcely perceptible and the sheep appeared to be dead. A 
small percentage of the sheep recovered after being in this condition 
for a few hours, but very few ever got upon their feet after being 
paralyzed for twenty -four hours. Careful post-mortem examinations 
were made on about 40 sheep which had died from eating death 
camas. The lungs were in all instances much congested and heav}'^ 
with blood, being in a so-called hepatized condition. There were no 
lesions in the membranes of the brain, and for the most part no con- 
gestion of them. In a few instances of cases of long duration there 
was a slight congestion of the cerebral membranes. In cases of adult 
sheep the effect upon the digestive organs was not marked. There 
was usually to be observed an increased salivation and a regurgitation 
through the mouth and nostrils. These last symptoms were present 
in nearly all cases from the first to the last stages. In lambs the 
symptoms which have been described for adult sheep were present, 
with the addition of pronounced digestive disturbances. The symp- 
toms appeared in the lamb soon after their manifestation in the mother, 
and the poisoning usually ran a more rapid course in the former than 
in the latter. The digestive disturbances in the lambs were frequently 
of an acute nature, usually assuming the form of painful and violent 
enteritis and dysentery, from which the lambs died in the course of 
a few hours. In cases where the ewes ate only a small quantity of 
death camas and were only slightlj^ afl'ected by it, their lambs exhibited 
much milder symptoms. The lambs thus affected could be readily 
recognized b}" their stiffness of gait and their inability to keep up 
with the herd. 

The symptoms which were produced experimentally by feeding the 
death camas to sheep, were identical with those which have been men- 
tioned as characterizing natural poisoning by this plant. Such experi- 
ments, however, were confined to dry sheep, so that no opportunity 
was had of observing the symptoms of experimental poisoning in 
lambs. 

As happens in connection with a number of poisonous plants, the 
majorit}^ of sheep which were poisoned by death camas were yearlings 
and two-year-olds. Perhaps sheep form more fixed and settled habits 
of feeding as they grow older, or it is barely possible that they learn 
by experience to avoid injurious plants. There was no indication that 
ewes with lambs at their sides were any more apt to eat death camas 
than were dry sheep. 

In conversation with stockmen attention was frequently called to the 



DEATH CAMAS. 63 

fact that in cases where a large number of sheep were poisoned at the 
same time by eating death camas, a striking variation was noticed in 
the length of time required for the development of the symptoms of 
poisoning in different sheep. This observation seems especially inter- 
esting in view of the fact that ordinarily a band of sheep is moved to 
another locality as soon as symptoms of poisoning are noticed. Some- 
times the band is immediately driven to a corral. Even under these 
circumstances the time at which the first symptoms of poisoning appear 
may vary from one to five or more hours. The only reasonable expla- 
nation which suggests itself is to be found in the anatomy and habits 
of the sheep. As is well known, the first stomach of a sheep is capable 
of containing a large quantity of material. It is another fact of every- 
day observation that sheep are ordinarily not contented, and do not 
lie down for noonday rest until this stomach is completely filled. It 
will readily be understood that a given quantity of a poisonous plant 
eaten along with a much larger quantity of grass, would naturally 
come to occupy different positions in the stomach in different sheep. 
Evidently the sheep is not affected by a poisonous plant until its sub- 
stance is dissolved and absorbed into the general circulation. It might 
well happen that a quantity of the poisonous plant, sufficient to cause 
death, could be in the center of a great mass of other material found in 
the first stomach. In such a position the poison would certainly not 
affect the sheep, and it would be evidently impossible to predict how 
soon it might come to lie against the wall of the first stomach, or how 
soon it might be taken up, masticated, and swallowed into the diges- 
tive stomach. The time at which this takes place will naturally vary 
in different sheep, and consequently the time at which the first symp- 
toms of poisoning are manifested will vary in the same manner. In 
the case of animals which have only a single comparatively small 
stomach, as in the horse and pig, it would be manifestly impossible for 
so long a time to intervene after eating poisonous plants before the 
symptoms of poisoning are manifested. 

From observation and experiment, the evidence establishing the 
poisonous nature of death camas seems quite conclusive. In making 
post-mortem examinations of sheep which had died with the above- 
mentioned symptoms the stomach contents were carefully studied with 
the result that the leaves, flowering stems or bulbs of death camas 
were found in every case. Sheep which were seen eating the plant 
when feeding at leisure upon the range showed within a few hours the 
symptoms described. In looking over the ranges where the sheep had 
been poisoned death camas was found growing abundantly in the exact 
localities where the sheep were poisoned. A study of these localities 
showed that death camas had been eaten extensively there and careful 
investigation failed to disclose the presence of any other plant which 



64 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

can reasonably be suspected of being poisonous, with the single excep- 
tion of the purple larkspur. This latter plant, however, had not been 
eaten by the sheep in localities where the death camas was abundant. 
Besides this evidence, obtained under natural conditions, experimental 
proof was obtained by collecting death camas and feeding it and its 
extracts to sheep and rabbits. The symptoms produced by this ex- 
perimental poisoning and those which were observed in natural cases 
were identical. 

During extended trips over different portions of the State many 
localities were examined where it was said that poisoning uniformly 
occurred if sheep were allowed to range there during the month of 
May. The death camas was found to be the only suspicious plant 
which grew in abundance in all such localities. A considerable num- 
ber of places were visited where poisoning of sheep in the spring had 
occurred to such an extent for a number of years that these parts 
of the range had had to be abandoned during that season, and sheep 
were only allowed to graze there during the late summer and fall. 
In all such places the death camas grew abundantly and was the only 
plant which could have caused serious poisoning. 

REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 

In cases of poisoning by death camas, a solution containing equal 
weights of permanganate of potash and sulphate of aluminum should 
be administered at once according to the directions already given. ^ 

The only practicable preventive measure which can be suggested is 
to determine the localities where the plant is most abundant from year 
to year and to herd the sheep away from such areas during the early 
spring, when the plant is succulent and most tempting. In order to 
do this, it is necessary for each sheep herder or owner to become 
familiar with the plant in all of its stages of growth. 

SUMMARY. 

Death camas is an extremely common and widely distributed plant 
in Montana. 

The bulbs have long been suspected in Montana and elsewhere of 
being poisonous to stock and to human beings. 

Our observations showed that the plant is frequently eaten by stock, 
especially by sheep, with fatal results in a large percentage of cases. 

Our experiments with rabbits and sheep demonstrated that the leaves 
as well as the bulbs are poisonous in moderate quantities, both rabbits 
and sheep having been killed by eating the plant. 

Experiments with various remedies indicated that permanganate of 
potash was the most effective antidote. 

Sheep should be herded away from this plant in early spring. 

1 Page 47. 



TALL LARKSPUR. 65 

TALL LARKSPUR. 

{Delphinium glomcurn S. Wats.) 

DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION. 

The common tall larkspur (PI. II) of Montana (erroneously called 
aconite) is a simple-stemmed perennial, 4 to 7 feet high, which is 
smooth throughout and covered during most of its growth with an 
easily erasable white coating like that commonly observed on ripe 
plums. Before flowering time the succulent basal leaves become long- 
stemmed and form tufts which about the 1st of June are a foot or so 
in height and of nearly the same diameter. In general the lower leaves 
are large and geranium-like, being broadly circular in outline, and 4 
to 6 inches in diameter, with broad segments having lance-shaped 
extremities; the upper floral leaves lance-shaped, simple, and very 
much smaller. The numerous flowers are of a pale-blue color, and 
are arranged in long slender terminal racemes. The seed capsules are 
three-lobed and smooth, the seeds black. 

This species of larkspur is easily distinguished from the purple 
larkspur, which is the other common species in the State, by the great 
difference in the shape of their leaves and the color of their flowers. 
The tall larkspur has the flowers considerably smaller than those of 
the purple larkspur and arranged in a long, close terminal spike. The 
plant with which this species is most likely to be confused is the wild 
geranium (PI. Ill), but the danger is confined to the early part of the 
season before the -flowers are developed. After the flowers of the 
larkspur and geranium appear, the two plants are easily distinguished 
by the casual observer. In the earlier stage some help may be obtained 
in distinguishing between them by carefully observing the appearance 
of the leaves. Those of the tall larkspur are almost, if not quite, 
perfectly smooth, while those of the geranium are always more or less 
hairy. Although these two plants grow in the same situations and 
are frequently found intermingled, a little experience with special 
attention devoted to noting the leaf characters will enable one to dis- 
tinguish them at a glance, even from a considerable distance. 

The tall larkspur has a rather wide distribution in the State. Its 
preferred habitat seems to be rich and moderately moist half -shaded 
localities, especially on slopes of foothills or mountains and among 
underbrush along strearas. It is found in valleys and up to a height 
of 9,000 feet. When growing in the higher altitudes, the color of the 
flowers is usually a much darker blue than when growing in lower 
altitudes, and the height of the plant is less. Otherwise no striking 
differences are noticed due to situation or altitude. The tall larkspur 
grows very abundantly in the Big Belt and Little Belt Mountains, 
Big Snowy, Crazy, and Bridger Mountains, Gallatin Range, Absaroka, 
S. Doc. 160 5 



66 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

Bear Tooth, Castle, and Rock}^ Mountains, Mission Range, and Bitter 
Root Mountains. The distribution of this plant so far as observations 
of the season of 1900 go, includes the following counties: Flathead, 
Teton, Ravalli, Lewis and Clarke, Fergus, Meagher, Madison, Jeffer- 
son, Gallatin, Park, Sweet Grass, Carbon, and Deerlodge. It is 
widely distributed in mountain regions from California to Alaska. 
But although this plant is found in a large number of counties of the 
State it is far less abundant than the purple larkspur, the localities in 
which it is found being as a rule far more restricted. The purple 
larkspur is to be found in almost every locality where the conditions 
are favorable to its growth, which is far from true of the tall larkspur. 

HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 

The tall larkspur appears not to be eaten by sheep. All cases of 
poisoning from this plant observed in Montana during this 3^ear and 
previous years have been among cattle. As already indicated, sheep 
are not driven to the mountain ranges until about the middle of July, 
and at this season the tall larkspur is altogether too large and coarse 
for their consumption. It is well known, on the other hand, that 
cattle will feed on much coarser forage than sheep, and at the same 
time the}^ are allowed to run on the high ranges in the early spring. 
In Montana the light green tufts of leaves of the tall larkspur first 
become conspicuous about the last of April or the first of May, and the 
flowers begin to open about the middle of June, This fact is signifi- 
cant for the reason that light falls of snow often occur in the larkspur 
belt as late as the first week in June, and, since there is then no other 
verdure in sight, the uncovered portion of the larkspur is in a high 
degree tempting to stock, all the more because it is succulent. The 
danger is increased by the fact that at the time of snow falls cattle 
seek the shelter of creeks where the larkspur is more abundant and 
most advanced in growth. At this period, moreover, the leaves are, 
as we can testify from personal observation, very bitter, and they are 
probably then more poisonous than at any other stage of growth. The 
older ones, as is also the case with the blue larkspur, are not so bitter. 
The plant is recognized by cattlemen as dangerous to cattle from May 
until about the middle of June. Mr. Vard Cockrell informs us that 
on his range in the lower basin of the Gallatin it is the sole duty of one 
man during this period to keep his cattle away from the broken moun- 
tainous regions where this larkspur abounds. 

In response to a communication from the Department Mr. E. C. 
Alderson, of Bozeman, Mont., a man of wide experience as a guide in 
Montana, states that about the middle of Jul}^ and later he has observed 
that horses will sometimes walk out of the l)eaten trail to nip the tops 
of the flowering plants, and Dr. F. W. Traphagen, professor of chem- 
istry at the Montana Agricultural College, informs us that he has seen 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate II. 




Tall Larkspur (Delphinium glaucum). 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept, of Agr. 



Plate III. 




Wild Geranium (Geranium viscosissimum). 



TALL LARKSPUR. 67 

a horse browse on the flowering plants in August for fully ten minutes 
at one time. In such cases the tall larkspur ma}- sometimes be eaten, 
but as a rule stock do not manifest any special fondness for it. On 
both slopes of the Big Belt Mountains the tall larkspur grows abun- 
dantly, and cattle and horses range over these areas during summei 
and autumn. Although cattle are sometimes killed by eating the plant 
during early summer on the lower slopes, especially near Townsend, 
search was made in vain for any evidence of the plant having been 
eaten in these localities during late summer and autumn. It was 
noticed that while the grass and other plants growing among the stems 
of tall larkspur had been eaten the larkspur was left standing. On the 
other hand, there are cases on record where cows have been killed by. 
eating the dry tops of tall larkspur in September, at which time nearly 
all the leaves have disappeared and the seeds which, judging from 
analogy with other species, probably contain a poisonous alkaloid, 
remain in the ripe capsules. We have heard of no observations show- 
ing that the plant has ever killed horses nor on the other hand that 
the leaves have ever been eaten by them or other stock to any extent 
with impunity before flowering time. A few persons believe, however, 
that the plant is not dangerous to horses or cattle except when wet or 
when snow is on the ground. It is easy to understand why more stock 
should be killed by it when snow covers almost every other plant, as it 
often does both in spring and autumn; but why it should prove more 
fatal when wet is very difiicult to understand. The roots are too 
woody to be eaten. 

Although many cattle are undoubtedly killed by eating the tall lark- 
spur there are few recorded instances of such poisoning. One reason 
for this, however, lies in the fact that cattle, unlike sheep, being left 
to the care of themselves on wide ranges are, when poisoned, more 
frequently found dead than alive, and hence the symptoms, which fur- 
nish the most convincing evidence in tracing out any case of poisoning, 
remain unrecorded. The plant has been received from Livingston, 
Bigtimber, Cherry Creek near the Madison River, and Sedan, accom- 
panied by a statement that it caused the death of cattle, and in the 
Gallatin Basin the tall larkspur has for many years been recognized as 
the cause of more or less serious losses of cattle in the spring. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

The following experiments were primarily conducted with the object 
of determining whether the immature plants are poisonous or not and, 
if so, of finding an antidote. As, however, no previous records of 
experiments or observations on the plant were. found showing the 
characteristic symptoms of poisoning by it in stock some notes were 
made in this line also. 

Experi7nefit 1. — The extract used in this experiment was made by 
Irvin Cockrell from dried roots collected during the preceding season. 



68 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

These were ground into an impalpable powder and 50 grams was per- 
colated with 200 c. c. of 50 per cent alcohol and then filtered. 

Ten cubic centimeters of this filtrate, representing 2i grams of the 
dried root, was fed at 2.40 p. m. .to a white rabbit (A) weighing 35 
ounces. The same amount of 50 per cent alcohol was fed five minutes 
later to another rabbit (B) of nearly equal weight, the object being to 
compare the symptoms produced by the alcohol with those produced 
by the extract and to note the difference. The symptoms thus obtained 
are not of course identical with those which would be produced by the 
poison alone, but they show some of the same characteristics, although 
the alcohol probably lessens their intensity at certain stages, as Dr. 
Wilcox has shown to be the case in poisoning from the blue larkspur. 

Both of the rabbits were somewhat similarly afi'ected by the alcohol. 
In both instances the voluntary muscles were more or less paralyzed, 
especially at first, the disinclination to move being most apparent in 
the check B, to which the alcohol was given. During the later stages, 
however, it appeared stronger but more stupid. It was also much less 
alarmed than A. Its heart action was stronger and less rapid and it 
did not show the peculiar spasmodic twitching of the muscles all over 
the body which was so characteristic of the rabbit to which the lark- 
spur extract was given. At 3.27 it was noticed that A's respiration 
was not so strong as B's and that it was decidedly wheezy. The spas- 
modic twitching of the muscles was prominent both before and after 
this time. The alcoholic symptoms continued in both cases until 5.40, 
at wnich time the observations were discontinued. The animals were 
bright and hungry the next morning. 

Experiment ^. — The material for this experiment was obtained from 
tufts of nonflowering plants a foot high, collected Maj^ 26 in rich, 
moist soil on the northern slope of Bridger Peak at an altitude of 
about 7,000 feet. While gathering the plant it was noticed that the 
leaves though succulent were very bitter. This was also noticed in 
leaves gathered at the same place two weeks later. They were pre- 
served in nearly their pristine condition in a botanical collecting box 
until May 28, when 50 grams was cut up in a sausage mill and 
extracted at ordinary temperature over night with 100 c. c. of dis- 
tilled water. After warming at blood heat for a half hour next day 
the extract was filtered and was ready for use, while the residue (which 
was afterwards discarded) was set to soak with 100 c. c. of 50 per cent 
alcohol. 

Eight cubic centimeters of the water extract, representing 4 grams 
of the leaves prepared from nonflowering plants as described above, 
was fed to a 26-ounce rabbit on June 1, at 3.3 p. m. It caused labored 
breathing with wheezing and rapid heart beats, but was not fatal. 
This was the case also after a second feeding of 10 c. c. given at 4.30 



TALL LARKSPUR. 69 

p. m. The rabbit was, however, very unwell for several days after- 
wards. On June 2 the motion of the head backward and forward, 
characteristic of the water extract of the purple larkspur, was very 
pronounced, but neither on June 1 nor June 2 was any spasmodic 
twitching of the muscles noted. As the rabbit could not, however, be 
closely observed more than an hour or two during all of that time 
these symptoms might easily have been unobserved. The rapid but 
feeble and wheezy respiration, the rapid heart beats, and the evident 
malaise continued with loss of appetite on the third, fourth, and fifth. 
On June 6, 14 c. c. more of the same extract, whicji had as yet shown 
no signs of molding, was fed, but no additional symptoms were noted 
on that day. The respiration was extremel}^ rapid (over 110 a minute) 
and irregular, and the next morning the animal showed a strong dis- 
inclination to move even when urged. It also refused to eat. On 
June 9 it appeared to be quite well. On June 13 it was somewhat 
droopy, but it eventually recovered. 

Expei^raent 3. — Fifty grams, including the succulent leaves and 
stems of nonflowering plants collected on Bridger Peak on the morn- 
ing of June 11, was fed that afternoon, while the plants were still 
fresh, to each of two rabbits, numbers 28 and 88 respectively, which 
had been deprived of their breakfasts. A third amount of equal 
weight was exposed in an adjoining pen in order to ascertain the loss 
of weight due to evaporation. After six hours the check had lost 30 
per cent of its weight. Rabbit number 28 had, during this time, eaten 
all but 6i grams, while number 88 had eaten all but 22^ grams. The 
actual amount eaten was, therefore, approximately 42 grams and 22 
grams. Neither quantity proved fatal. Lack of time forbade any 
but the most casual observations on these rabbits and no symptoms 
were noted. Both were bright and vigorous the next day, but number 
28, which had eaten the larger amount of leaves, was more easily 
frightened than usual. 

Experiment If.. — Late in the evening of June 12, \\ c. c. of the 
expressed juice of the fresh leaves gathered June 11 was given hypo- 
dermically to each of two rabbits, but . no characteristic symptoms of 
poisoning were noted, the rabbits appearing but slightly ill at ease the 
next morning. 

Experiment 5. — The extracts used in this and the two following 
experiments were obtained from a part of the supply of nonflowering 
plants gathered on June 11 on Bridger Peak, part of which was used 
in the two preceding experiments. All three of the tests were made 
on sheep at Bigtimber on June 14. 

On June 12, 1,700 grams of the fresh leaves and stems was ground 
up in a sausage mill, care being taken to save the juice which was 
pressed out at the same time. The fibrous portion was then placed 



70 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

in a strong linen bag and subjected to pressure in a filter press, and 
the juice thus obtained was added to that already saved in grinding, 
870 c. c. in all being obtained. Some of this was used in experiment 4. 

On June 1-i, at 8.15 a. m., 400 c. c. of this juice was poured through 
a rubber tube • and funnel into the stomach of a sheep weighing 
approximately oO pounds. No symptoms were observable up to 10 
o'clock, l)iit the animal was uneasy and slightly bloated. The skin 
twitched occasionally and the respiration was weaker and somewhat 
labored, the rate being 24 a minute. The pulse rate was 92. At 10.42 
the animal, although a little droopy, would run about readily and did 
not appear to be uneasy. Four hundred cubic centimeters more of 
the juice was now fed. At 3.15 there was a slight trembling of the 
limbs. The animal had been lying down calmly for some time, but 
was now on its feet and, although somewhat weak, could walk with 
ease. It remained standing in the same condition for over two hours. 
At 7 it was resting contentedly without any sign of discomfort, and 
on the next day it was apparently as well and as active as usual. 

Experiment 6. — The residue left after expressing the juice from 
1,700 grams of the plants used in the previous experiment was soaked 
over night in 1,000 c. c. of alcohol, to which 10 c. c. of the dilute 
acetic acid was added to facilitate the extraction of the alkaloids. 
One thousand one hundred and thirty-three cubic centimeters of alco- 
holic extract was obtained the next day by filtration and by strong 
pressing in the filter press. 

Four hundred cubic centimeters of this extract was fed June 14, at 
8.53 a. m., to a sheep weighing about 50 pounds. The large quantity 
of alcohol contained in the extract caused the sheep to stagger to the 
fioor within a few minutes and, of course, produced most of the char- 
acteristic ph}^siological effects. By comparison with a check of about 
equal weight to which the same quantity of 50 per cent alcohol had 
been given a few minutes before, certain symptoms characteristic of 
the larkspur were noted. At 9.20 the animal was lying on the floor 
suffering from an almost complete loss of muscular and nervous energy. 
The pulse rate was 72 a minute, but the pulse was exceedingly weak. 
The animal could not raise its head. At 10.20 it was more conscious, 
but its skin was quivering constantly and was very sensitive to touch. 
The rate of breathing had increased to 33 a minute, but was very shal- 
low. The pulse rate was not determinable on account of its great 
rapidity and the constant trembling of the animal's body. At the 
same time it had gained control over its muscles to such an extent that 
it could hold its head off the floor for about a minute at a time. It 
continued in the same condition,but gradually recovering its strength, 
until 6.30, when it got upon its feet. The trembling and twitching of 
the muscles ceased to be very prominent at about 3 o'clock, but it was 
observed in less pronounced form until 6.30. At 6.12 it was but 



TALL LAEKSPUR. 71 

slightl}^ dizzy and had to a considerable extent regained its bright 
appearance. The rectal temperature at 5.30 was 102.6^. At 7.15 the 
sheep was running about the pen restlessly and had a good appetite. 
On the following day it fed and walked about as usual. 

Experiment 7. — At 1.55 on the same day in which the above experi- 
ment was made the same quantity of the same extract was fed in the 
same way to a sheep of nearly the same weight, but within a minute 
afterwards a dose was given which contained a quarter gram each 
of potassium permanganate and aluminum sulphate in the form of a 
1 per cent aqueous solution. The symptoms subsequently noted, con- 
sisting as they did in a deep narcosis only, were wholly attributable 
to the effects of the alcohol. The animal was watched closely for five 
and one-half hours, but showed none of the symptoms of larkspur 
poisoning, and on the following morning it was as well as usual. 

Experiment 8. — The only remedy with which experiments were 
made in the treatment of cases of poisoning from this plant was 
drenching witK a solution of potassium permanganate. The test of 
the efficiency of this remedy in the case of cattle was not so severe as 
it was in the case of sheep. Potassium permanganate in doses of 
25 grams was given to 4 cattle and all of these animals recovered. 
The remedy was applied during the incipient stages of poisoning, and 
therefore before it was possible to know whether or not they had eaten 
a sufficient quantity of the tall larkspur to produce death. The ani- 
mals, however, recovered more rapidly than could have been expected 
without treatment, when it is considered that three others which were 
not treated died within about six hours after the first development 
of the sjnnptoms of poisoning. But it is obviously impossible in the 
case of animals just beginning to manifest symptoms of poisoning to 
predict whether or not they will die if not treated, unless the identity 
of the alkaloid is known, the size of the fatal dose, and the amount 
which has been eaten by the animal poisoned. Naturally these con- 
ditions can not be realized in doing field work on plants of which the 
poisonous principles have not yet been isolated or studied chemically. 

SYMPTOMS. 

The symptoms of poisoning by this plant may be described as fol- 
lows: In general, the animals affected manifest symptoms similar to 
those produced bj^ overdoses of aconite. The first signs of poisoning 
are usualh' a general stiffness and irregularity of gait. There is often 
a pronounced straddling of the hind legs in walking. These symp- 
toms increase in severity until locomotion becomes difficult or impos- 
sible, and the animal finally falls to the ground. It usually falls and 
gets on its feet again a number of times, the muscular movements 
becoming more and more irregular and incoordinated. At the same 
time the skin is very sensitive to touch, and the muscles of the sides 



72 • STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

and legs soon begin to quiver spasmodically. This a very character- 
istic symptom, being usually exhibited for several hours. The function 
of the special senses is seldom impaired, the animal being apparently 
able to hear and see as well and as correctly as under conditions of 
health. Although a slight increase in the quantity of saliva is to be 
noticed in some cases, this symptom is never so pronounced as in cases 
of poisoning by death camas. During the later stages of poisoning the 
animal is usually attacked with violent convulsions, in one of which it 
finally dies. In this respect, also, the symptoms differ distinctly from 
those of death camas poisoning, which is usually quite without spasms. 
The digestive functions seem not to be affected by larkspur poisoning. 
The temperature is lowered slightly during the first stages, in one 
instance having been as low as 97°. During the later stages the pulse 
becomes very frequent and the breathing rapid and shallow. The 
cerebral symptoms are simply those of excitement, and the appetite 
seems not to be lost until shortly before death. 

REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 

In cases of poisoning by tall larkspur, permanganate of potash 
and sulphate of aluminum should be administered as recommended 
for poisoning by death camas. ^ For counteracting the physiological 
effects, atropine should be given hypodermically in doses of from ^ to 
1 grain for cattle and horses. Alcoholic stimulants and ammonia may 
be administered to some advantage. To prevent poisoning from lark- 
spur, cattle should be herded away from the localities where it abounds 
in spring until the danger from early snowstorms has passed. 

The distribution of the tall larkspur in Montana is for the most part 
in such sharply defined and moderate-sized areas that the possibility of 
exterminating it by digging is not out of the question. For example, 
in Gallatin County there is a cattle range located at an altitude of 
about 6,500 feet, in a basin surrounded on all sides by mountains. 
Cattle have been allowed to graze on this range every season for a 
number of years, and a greater or less number of animals have died 
each year from poisoning by the tall larkspur. In 1898, during the 
early part of June, 40 died from eating this plant, while during the 
spring of 1900 only 3 were poisoned. A careful inspection of this 
range showed that the tall larkspur was entirely confined to a few 
areas of small size. It is believed that it could all be completely exter- 
minated by twenty -five days' work with a weed digger designed for 
severing the roots at a short distance below the ground. The expense 
of this labor would not exceed the value of two cattle, and this num- 
ber is much less than the average annual loss from the tail larkspur 
on this range. Similar conditions prevail on some of the mountain 
ranges in the vicinity of Deerlodge, Redlodge, and Bigtimber. On 

^ Pages 47, 64, 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate IV. 




Purple Larkspur (Delphinium bicolorI. 



PURPLE LARKSPUR. 73 

the summit of the Big Belt Mountains, in the region of the Duck 
Creek Pass, and on both slopes for a considerable distance down from 
the summit, the tall larkspur grows so abundantly and over such 
wide areas that extermination by digging would seem to be quite 
impracticable. 

In order to eradicate the plant when it is at its most dangerous stage 
it is necessary that stockmen familiarize themselves with the difference 
between it and the wild geranium in their earlier stages of growth. 



The tall larkspur is a plant widely distributed in Montana, occur- 
ring, as a rule, in well-defined areas, especially on mountain ranges. 

It has for several years been suspected of poisoning cattle, especially 
after snowstorms in spring and autumn. 

Our observations show that the plant is sometimes eaten by cattle 
with fatal results. Extracts of the leaves of young plants when fed 
to rabbits produce alarming symptoms, and the same was true in one 
case when fed to sheep. 

Experiments on cattle and one sheep indicated that permanganate 
of potash is an effective antidote when given in the first stages of 
poisoning. 

Cattle should be kept away from patches of larkspur, especially 
during snowstorms. 

PURPLE LARKSPUR. 

{Deljpliinium hlcolor Nutt.) 

DESCEIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTKIBUTION. 

A smooth or somewhat pubescent, tuberous-rooted perennial, 1 to 2 
feet high, with a cluster of finely divided long-stemmed root leaves 
and a varying number of rich purple flowers, which appear from May 
to August, according to altitude (Pis. IV and V). The flowers are 
usually few in number, but large, varying from 1 to \\ inches m 
width. In Montana the plant is common throughout the State on 
moderately moist hillsides and mountain ranges at all elevations up to 
10,500 feet. Its entire range extends from Colorado northwestward 
to Alaska. The typical form of the species is rather glabrate, but 
frequently grades into the variety inontanensie Rydberg, which is 
glandular-pilose throughout and has thicker leaves. 

The purple larkspur is readily distinguished from the tall larkspur 
by its dark purple flowers and its smaller size. It blooms, moreover, 
about six weeks earlier, having been found during the season of 1900 
in full bloom by the 1st of May. The distribution of the species is 
much more general and extensive in the State than that of the tall 
larkspur. During the season of 1900 it was observed on all of the 



74 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

mountain ranges and in all the counties of the State which have been 
mentioned in giving the distribution of that species. The areas 
in which it grows are in some cases sharply defined, but, in gen- 
eral, they are not so definite as in the case of the latter species. 
In the greater number of places where it is abundant, it seems to be 
impossible to exterminate it by artificial means. 

The purple larkspur is often found growing abundantly in the same 
situations with death camas, and in general its preferred habitat seems 
to be the same as that of this species. It does not, however, occur so 
abundantly as death camas in the shallow depressions and coulees of 
the plains. In fact, the purple larkspur is seldom found in situations 
far removed from foothills and mountains, though these localities 
seem to be the preferred place of growth for death camas. The soil 
in which it grows is generally compact paid turfy, but it is frequently 
found in loose soil among shrubs and in scattering woods. The first 
green leaves begin to appear about the 1st of May or, in early 
seasons, the latter part of April, and the flowers bloom, according to 
altitude, an3'where between the early part of May and about the first 
week in June. The bright purple color of the flowers of this species 
serves to distinguish it at a considerable distance. Unfortunately, 
however, this plant is most frequently eaten before the flowering- 
period, and it is, therefore-, important for sheep herders to familiarize 
themselves with the appearance of the leaves, in order that they may 
be able to recognize the plant in any stage of growth. 

HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 

Considerable difference of opinion as to the poisonous character of 
the purple larkspur exists between stockmen and other persons less 
financially interested in stock. The majority of the large holders con- 
sider it poisonous, while others, including men of scientific attainment, 
assert that stock can eat it, at least to some extent, with impunity. 
Experiments have been made which show that at one stage of growth 
the leaves of another species {D. menzlesii) may be safely eaten, to a 
certain extent, by sheep. Dr. S. B. Nelson, professor of veterinary 
science in the Washington Agricultural College, in an article entitled 
Feeding Wild Plants to Sheep, published by the Bureau of Animal 
Industry of this Department, showed that it is possible to feed as 
much as 24f pounds of the fresh leaves of D. menziesii to a sheeji 
within a period of five days without causing any apparent ill effect. 
The stage of growth of the larkspur was not stated, but, judging from 
the other experiments described in the same report, it was probably in 
a well-advanced flowering stage. Dr. Wilcox's experiments, published 
in the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, entitled 
Larkspur Poisoning of Sheep, show conclusively that the extract from 
less than an ounce of the dried leaves of the purple larkspur {D. 



PUKPLE LARKSPUR. 75 

Mcolor) was fatal to a yearling lamb, and the nature of the other evi- 
dence therein adduced is such that no room is left to doubt the toxic 
character of the plant, at least in its earlier stages of growth. In 
neither investigation were any experiments made to test the plant at 
more than one stage of growth. The following experiments were 
made with the view of ascertaining whether the permanganate of pot- 
ash, which it was proposed to use in many cases of plant poisoning, 
could be used with satisfactory results as a chemical antidote in case 
of- this plant, and also of determining which parts of the plant were 
most toxic. During some seasons the purple larkspur causes extensive 
poisoning of sheep and calves. Cattle and horses, on the other hand, 
seem to eat it less frequentl}' than tall larkspur. In the season of 
1900 conclusive evidence against this plant was obtained in only one 
localitj . This was derived from two cases among calves in the Flat- 
head Valle)'. The calves were about 5 weeks old, and at the time when 
the poisoning occurred, were running in a native pasture where the 
purple larkspur grew sparingl3^ The symptoms of poisoning in these 
two cases were similar to those already outlined from poisoning in the 
tall larkspur in cattle, with the exception that a slight bloating was 
to be observed in the case of the calves. The respiration and heart 
beat became exceedingly rapid as the symptoms of poisoning increased 
in severity. The body temperature was slightly lowered, and this 
was accompanied by profuse sweating. The increased perspiration 
may have been due in part to the violent spasms in which the animals 
finally died. Death occurred about four hours after the appearance 
of the first symptoms. No remedy was applied in these cases. 

Post-mortem examination made on the two calves just mentioned as 
having died from larkspur poisoning disclosed the following condi- 
tions: No cerebral congestion was observed, nor had the larkspur pro- 
duced any noticeable efi'ect on the walls of the stomach. The blood 
was largely found in the venous side of the circulation. The veins in 
the mesenteries of the small intestines were much distended with 
blood. The same was true of the right auricle of the heart. The 
lungs were extremely heavy and full of blood, being in a condition 
similar to that which was found in post-mortems made on sheep which 
had been poisoned by death-camas. In general the sj^mptoms exhibited 
by these calves were closely similar to those which were observed dur- 
ing previous seasons in sheep which died from the same cause. The 
post-mortem findings indicated that the blood was insufiiciently aerated, 
and the symptoms manifested by the animals just before death showed 
plainly that the respiratory centers were paralyzed and that respira- 
tion was for that reason shallow. When the respiratory movements 
are so rapid and shallow as they were observed to be in these cases the 
air is not renewed in the lungs, the breathing movements being merely 
suflicient to pump the air up and down in the trachea. 



76 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 



EXPERIMENTS. 



The roots and leaves of nonflowering plants averaging about 3 inches 
in height', gathered May 26 at an altitude of about 8,000 feet on 
Bridger Peak, were kept moist and turgid in a tin botanical collecting 
box until May 28. Forty-two grams of the leaves was then ground 
in a sausage machine and soaked in 100 c. c. of distilled water at ordi- 
nary temperatures over night, heated a half hour at blood heat the 
next day, and then filtered by pressing through a linen l)ag until all 
the water was separated. Twenty-seven grams of the roots was treated 
with 50 c. c. in precisely the same manner at the same time. The 
resulting extracts were kept on ice over Decoration Day, while each 
of the residues was set to soak with 100 c. c. of 50 per cent alcohol. 
None of the extracts became moldy before thej were used, their 
superior keeping quality over other similar extracts being in fact an 
argument in favor of their toxic character. Fig. 5 represents the 
stage of growth of the plants used in the first five experiments. 

Experiment 1. — On June 1 10 c. c. of the water extract, equivalent 
to 4.2 grams of the fresh green leaves, was fed to a lY-ounce rabbit. 
The prominent effects noted after a couple of hours were a more rapid 
respiration and a dizzy motion of the head backward and forward. 

ExpeTiment 2. — On June 6 14 c. c. of the same solution, represent- 
ing 5.8 grams of the leaf, was fed to the same rabbit. The same symp- 
toms were displaj^ed on the same day and the day following, but to a 
greater degree. On June 7 respiration was so labored that the whole 
body pulsated rhythmically to each movement. The heart action was 
also weak and very fluttering, and the animal refused to eat even when 
coaxed. The recovery was, however, complete. 

Experhnent 3. — The alcoholic extract obtained from the above 42 
grams of leaves after extracting with water was evaporated to dryness 
over a water bath and the residue dissolved in 15 c. c. of about 30 per 
cent alcohol. Of this extract li c. c, representing 4.2 grams of the 
fresh leaf, was injected hypodermically into a 40-ounce rabbit. The 
animal's respiration was greatly accelerated in three-quarters of an 
hour, but it had completely recovered by the next day. 

Experiment Jf.. — On May 31 7 c. c. of the water extract of the root, 
representing 3f grams of the fresh material, was fed to a 63-ounce 
rabbit at 11.34 a. m. The animal was energetic and perfectly normal 
vqy to 12.40, when it was noticed that it appeared uneasy and that its 
breathing was irregular and rapid. At 3 o'clock, no additional sj'mp- 
toms having been noted, an amount of extract equivalent to 7i grams 
of the fresh root was fed, and at 8 p. m. 10 grams more. The S3^mp- 
toms produced by the last two were not noted, but the effect was not 
fatal. 

Experiment 5. — The alcoholic extract from the 27 grams of roots 
used in the last experiment was evaporated to dryness, the residue dis- 



PURPLE LARKSPUR. 77 

solved in 30 per cent alcohol as in experiment 3, and 1^ c. c, the 
equivalent of 2i grams, injected hypodermically into a 55-ounce rabbit, 
but with no marked results. 

In the next four experiments the extracts used were obtained by 
Mr, I. Cockrell from flowering plants which were rather badly wilted. 
The plants were divided into four parts — the roots, stems, leaves, and 
flowers — each of which was extracted over night with water at ordi- 
niirj temperature and warmed a half hour at blood heat the next day. 
After this the extracts were filtered, and they were then ready for use. 
No extracts were made from this material with other solvents than 
water. 

Exjyeriment 6. — On June 1 15 c. c. of the root extract, representing 
10 grams of the wilted plant, was fed to a 2 -pound rabbit at 3.22 p. m. 
No effect having been noted, the dose was increased to 20 c. c. at 4.25. 
This was likewise without any marked effect, as was a third dose of 
28 c. c, which was administered on June 6. 

Experiment 7. — On June 1 15 c. c. of the stem extract, representing 
5 grams of the wilted plant, was fed to a rabbit. Both the heart and 
the lungs were slightly stimulated, but in an attempt one hour later to 
administer a second dose the animal was accidentally killed. 

Experiment 8. — On Ma}'^ 31 10 c. c. of the leaf extract, representing 
()t grams of the wilted leaves, was fed to a 26-ounce rabbit. at 2.45 p. m. 
A' slight uneasiness was noticed at 3.30, but otherwise the animal 
remained perfectly normal. Neither did any pronounced results follow 
a second feeding of 20 c. c. given at 8.5 p. m. 

Experiment 9.- — On Ma}^ 31 10 c. c. of the flower extract, represent- 
ing 3i grams of the .withered flowers, was fed to a 47-ounce rabbit at 
11.27 a. m. At 11.55 there was considerable uneasiness, which was 
made evident by a shaking of the head and by holding the breath and 
then breathing rapidly. In addition to these symptoms drowsiness set 
in at about 12.43. At 2.05 there was a rhj-thmical movement of the 
head with each respiratory movement, which seemed to indicate that 
the brain was being affected. At 3.5 p. m. 30 c. c. more was given, 
but the onl}- additional sj^mptom noted was increased difficulty in 
breathing. At 8.5 30 c. c. more was given, but the symptoms were 
not noted. The effect was not fatal. 

Summing up the results of these experiments, we find that the most 
prominent, easily observable symptoms were a stimulation of the respi- 
ration and a brain symptom manifested by dizziness or a rhj^thmical 
movement of the head. As it was not the object of the experiment to 
determine the symptoms of poisoning, these having been alread}^ 
secured by Dr. Wilcox, no special effort was made to determine the 
pulse rate, but it was to be noted that in experiment 2, which was 
as nearly fatal as any, the heart action was extremely rapid and weak. 

None of the experiments proved fatal and no results were obtained 
on which a satisfactory trial of the permanganate of potassium as an 



78 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

antidote could be based ; hence no experiments were made in that line. 
Neither were the experiments numerous enough to deduce any posi- 
tive results as to the comparative toxicity of the various parts. By 
inspection of the various experiments, however, it will at once be seen 
that the most ■ satisfactory ones in this regard were the fourth and 
sixth, in which the water solution of extracts was fed. The equivalent 
of 44 grams of the root of the flowering plant was fed to a rather 
small rabbit, 26 ounces in weight, without causing any appreciable 
efl^ect, while in experiment 4, where the roots from nonflowering plants 
were used, about half the quantity, 21i grams, produced some of the 
characteristic symptoms of the plant, although fed to a rabbit weigh- 
ing 63 ounces — over twice as much as the other. It seems probable, 
therefore, that the older root is little, if at all, toxic. The fact that 
the alcoholic extract from ^i grams of the young root was without 
efl'ect on a 55-ounce rabbit when injected hypodermically is not signif- 
icant. The experiments show that the root of the young plant is poi- 
sonous and tend to show that those of the mature plant are not. It is 
possible, however, that advanced age may alter the chemical combina- 
tion of the alkaloid and render it insoluble in water without affecting 
its toxic character. Other more powerfid solvents might have 
extracted the poison, but the limitations of time and the multiplicity 
of other experiments precluded further investigation. 

The extracts for experiments 1, 2, and 8 were prepared in the same 
wa}'. A comparison of the results is interesting, inasmuch as it tends 
to explain the apparently anomalous results referred to above, which 
were obtained when Dr. Nelson fed a very "considerable amount of 
a related species of larkspur to sheep without noting any marked 
symptoms. The extract from 20 grams of leaves taken from partly 
wilted flowering plants produced only a slight uneasiness when fed to 
a 26-ounce rabbit, while v^sry positive results were obtained in the 
other experiments where a much smaller amount of the extract was 
used. The weight of the rabbit in the latter case was somewhat less, 
but the difference was not at all sufiicient to account for the difference 
in effect. That there is a positive difference is also evident from a few 
observations made on the comparative taste of the leaves at the two 
stages of growth. Those from young plants gathered at the same 
time as that from which PI. V was taken had a decidedl}^ bitter taste, 
and those from flowering plants gathered later were distincth^ acid and 
rather agreeable. Our experiments show that there is a slight amount 
of poison in the leaves. Experiments 7 and 9 show that the stalks of 
flowering plants, and especially the flowers, are poisonous. It is very 
frequently asserted that the fatal effects of larkspur on stock are only 
produced when the root has been eaten. One of us. Dr. Wilcox, has, 
however, alread}- shown that it is extremely difiicult in most cases for 
animals to pull up the roots, and our experiments with the young 



Plate V. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 




Purple Larkspur ' 



DELPHINIUM BlCOLOR>, YOUNG PLANTS. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agf- 



Plate VI. 




Red False Mallow (Malvastrum coccineum) 



PUEPLE LAEKSPUR. 79 

leaves show conclusively that the eating of these in sufficient quantity 
is an adequate cause of death. The observation is of much value in 
emphasizing- the necessit}^ for herders to become thoroughly familiar 
with the larkspur in its earlier stages of growth. This is all the more 
important because the leaves, being succulent onl}^ when young, at 
which time they also constitute the earliest verdure in pasture land, 
are then especially tempting to stock. It is to facilitate the ready rec- 
ognition of the 3"oung leaves that PI. V is herewith supplied. Great 
care must be observed, however, in distinguishing the leaves from the 
earliest leaves of the rod false mallow {Malvastrwn coccineuDi Gray) 
(PI. VI), a noupoisonous plant which is extremely common in many 
pasture lands throughout the State. The showy red rose-like blos- 
soms of the mallow, which appear from May to August, readily dis- 
tinguish it from the larkspur, but before flowering the two plants may 
be easily mistaken on account of the close resemblance of the leaves. 
In both they are very finely divided, as shown in Pis. V and VI, but 
the mallow leaf is smaller and very much more densely covered with 
hair than the most hairy form of the purple larkspur. From the 
smooth form, which is most common, it may be distinguished at once, 
and an ordinary magnifying glass will easily disclose the peculiarly 
compound and radiating character of the mallow-leaf hairs. 

SYMPTOMS OF POISONING. 

The symptoms of poisoning from larkspur are, as before stated, 
generall}" to be distinguished from those of poisoning by death camas 
in its later stages. These two plants produce effects which at first are 
not very unlike. In cases of poisoning by either the first symptoms 
are almost invariably a stiffness and slight irregularity in gait. As 
the poisoning progresses regurgitation occurs in both, but is more 
pronounced in cases of poisoning from death camas than in those 
caused by larkspur. The final stages in cases of larkspur poisoning 
are accompanied by attacks of violent spasms interrupted by periods 
of rest. The last stages of death camas poisoning, on the other hand, 
are passed in a state of complete muscular parah^sis. 

Attention has already been called to arbitrary variations in the 
appetite of domesticated animals. This fact is illustrated under 
range conditions by the changes in the choice of food plants by stock 
in different years. During two previous seasons quite conclusive 
evidence was obtained that large numbers of sheep were poisoned from 
eating the purple larkspur. During the summer of 1 900, however, no 
sheep were seen eating the plant, and no evidence was obtained to 
show that it had been eaten. On one range a band of sheep were 
driven over an area of purple larkspur twice each day in going in and 
out of the corral. A close examination of this field of larkspur failed 
to disclose a single specimen which had been eaten by the sheep. 



80 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

During the spring, however, this whole band of sheep was poisoned 
from eating death camas. Observations in the field indicate that the 
purple larkspur is not as virulent as death camas. When, in addition 
to this, it is considered that death camas is apparently eaten more fre- 
quently than the purple larkspur, it would seem to be a safe assertion 
that death camas is the most important plant concerned in cases of 
spring poisoning of stock. 

REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 

In cases of poisoning from this plant the same remedies should be 
applied which were> recommended for poisoning by the tall larkspur. 

As most of the cases of poisoning occur before larkspur is in bloom, 
it is important that stockmen should make themselves familiar with its 
appearance in the earlier stages of growth, in order to be able to herd 
sheep away from it at that period. 

SUMMARY. 

The purple larkspur is a plant which is widely distributed in Mon- 
tana, especially on foothills and mountains, where its deep blue flowers 
are conspicuous over wide areas in springtime. 

For a number of years it has been considered fatal to sheep and 
occasionally to other stock, and this view has been confirmed by our 
investigations. 

Sheep are more often poisoned by purple larkspur than are other 
domestic animals. 

Our observations during the past few years have shown a striking 
variation in the appetite of sheep with reference to this plant. 

Our experiments indicate that both the leaves and roots of young 
plants are poisonous and that the plant is most dangerous during the 
early stages of growth before flowering. 

The previous experience of one of us had shown that atropine 
is the best antidote for counteracting the physiological effect of this 
plant. Permanganate of potash and sulphate of aluminum should be 
administered as a chemical antidote. 

WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK. 

(Oicuta occtdentalis Greene.) 

Other names: Water hemlock, cowbane, spotted cowbane, wild 
parsnip, etc. 

DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION. 

A smooth perennial ?■ to 5 feet in height, with 3 to 10 fleshy, 
tapering roots, 3 to 5 inches long, clustered at the base of the ascending 
axis; leaves doubly compound, with narrow serrate leaflets 2 to 3 
inches in length; flowers in clusters, dull greenish- white (Pis. VII and 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr, 



Plate VII. 




Wyoming Water Hemlock (Cicuta occidentalis). 



Bui. 26, Div, of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate VIII. 




Wyoming Water Hemlock (Cicuta occidentalis), young Plant. 



WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK. 81 

VIII). The plant differs from the eommon eastern water hemlock in 
the more elongated spindling roots and the duller color of its flowers. 
One striking peculiarity of the root is its characteristic musky odor, 
which is observed especially when a small quantity of the juice gets 
upon the fingers. It is generally distributed through the State. Out- 
side of Montana it is found abundantly in Wyoming and Colorado, 
and in less quantity from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado to the 
Sierra Nevada of California and northward. 

In Montana the Wyoming water hemlock was observed in every 
count}^ Its ordinary habitat is along the banks of streams and irri- 
gation ditches, on wet railroad embankments, and in swamps and wild 
meadows. In general it was noticed that in portions of the State west 
of the Rocky Mountains this plant was more abundant in wild 
meadows, which are cut for hay, than was the case in the eastern part 
of the State. In Flathead, Missoula, Deerlodge, and Granite counties 
it grows rather abundantly '.n many such meadows. In the eastern 
part of the State, however, as just indicated, the distribution of the 
plant is almost strictl}^ confined to the banks of streams and irrigation 
ditches of long standing. 

HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 

In Montana this plant is most commonly known by the name "wild 
parsnip," and it appears that from the use of this name, a mistaken 
notion has arisen that this is identical with the common parsnip of the 
garden. A number of cases of poisoning have happened in Montana 
from eating this species, and since the term wild parsnip is commonly 
used to designate the cause, it has come to be believed by a large num- 
ber of persons that the garden parsnip, when allowed to escape from 
cultivation and run wild, acquires poisonous properties. The two 
plants should be readily distinguished. The flowers of the garden 
parsnip are yellow, while those of the water hemlock are white. The 
latter is a much slenderer and a much less leafy plant than the former, 
and the leaves of the water hemlock, while of the same general shape, 
have much finer subdivisions. Not only water hemlock, but a number 
of other plants belonging to the parsnip family are often called by the 
name of wild parsnip, as if they all belonged to the same species. 
Among the plants whose identity is thus mistaken ma}^ be mentioned 
the cow parsnip {Ileracleum lanatum) and species of Lomatium, Phel- 
lopterus, and Leptotaenia. 

The number of cattle poisoned by water hemlock in Montana dur- 
ing 1900, so far as conclusive evidence could be obtained, was 36, and of 
these 30 died. About 105 sheep were poisoned by it the same year, 
80 of which died. The percentage of fatal cases, therefore, is very 
large, being 76 per cent with sheep, and 83 per cent with cattle. The 
roots of this plant are occasionally eaten by man, usually with fatal 
S. Doc. 160 6 



82 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

results. During the season of 1900 in Montana there were five cases 
of poisoning in human beings from this cause and four deaths. This 
species seems to be equally as dangerous as the better known water 
hemlock ( G. maculata) of the Eastern States. The symptoms described 
are practically identical with those produced b}'^ the eastern plant. 
Full observations on water hemlock were confined to determining the 
extent of its distribution, and the frequency with which it is eaten by 
different animals. The time of year when it is most frequently eaten 
by sheep and cattle is that of its active growth when it offers an abun- 
dance of tempting fodder, mainly before the flowering stems are pro- 
duced. During the season of 1900 the water hemlock began to ])loom 
over the greater part of the State about June 15. 

This plant, as already stated, grows in rather wet places, and, except 
where grasses have formed a tough sod. its roots ma}^ be readily pulled 
up with the stem. In fact this is what usuall}'^ happens, since the stem 
is firmly united with the roots and is not easily broken at their junction. 
It was not determined to what extent the roots are eaten b}^ sheep and 
cattle when pulled up in connection with the stem. In a number of 
cases of sheep poisoning the roots had been eaten and were found in 
the stomach of the victims. In other cases an examination of the 
locality where the poisoning had occurred showed that the plants had 
been pulled with the roots attached, but the latter had been left lying 
upon the ground. In still other cases water hemlock had been eaten 
off without disturbing the roots. Field observations indicate that the 
leaves and stems, including the basal portion of this plant, at least dur- 
ing the early stages of growth, contained sufficient poison to produce 
death. The roots contain a virulent poison. In the cases of human 
poisoning the only portion of the plant eaten was the roots. Mr. E. J. 
Moore, of the Agricultural College, informed us that his father lost 
horses occasionally while plowing up new land bordering on marshes, 
the horses in these instances eating the roots. A few cases of the 
poisoning of horses from eating meadow hay containing the plant 
have been reported to this Department from Montana. Some farmers 
are of the opinion that the tops of the young plants, exclusive of the 
roots, are poisonous when less than a foot or so in height, and that later 
the whole top may be eaten with impunity. Instances of stock eating 
the tops in the more advanced stages without injury were cited b}^ at 
least two persons. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

Experiment 1. — The upper portion of nonflowering plants less than 
a foot in height were gathered June 3, and having been kept turgid in 
a tin box, were fed June 4 and June 5. In the first case the material 
was fed out of hand in small pieces to a 1-pound rabbit until, after ten 
minutes, it had eaten all of sixteen leaves. The remainder of 60 grams 



WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK. 83 

was then placed in the cage, and after forty-five minutes 12^ grams in 
all had been eaten. The rabbit ate the first portion quite readily, but 
it had practicall}' refused to eat more of the Cicuta, even when coaxed, 
at the end of a half hour. It was then decidedlj^ uneasy, and its respi- 
ration was unusually rapid. Ten minutes later it had voided a consid- 
erable amount of urine, which relieved it from most of its symptoms, 
but five minutes later still its temperature was 102,4-*, that of a check 
being 100,8° F. A little irregularity of breathing was noted three and 
one-half hours after the beginning of the experiment, but the next day 
the rabbit seemed perfectly normal. 

Experiment 2. — In the preceding experiment all of the aerial portion 
of the plant was used. In this the thick, whitish basal portions of the 
leaves, which were thought to be more poisonous on account of their 
more oily appearance and their pungent taste, were discarded. Fifty 
grams were offered to a 1 -pound rabbit. The amount which had been 
eaten five hours afterwards was 12 grams or more, as was ascertained 
by weighing the uneaten part and making proper allowance for the 
evaporation of water, which was determined by weighing a check 
amount of equal weight that had been exposed to practically the same 
conditions. No effect whatever was produced. 

Experiment 3. — On June 9 50 grams of the fresh tops of the non- 
ffowering plants (1 to 1^ feet high), exclusive of the white basal por- 
tions, was eaten b}^ a rabbit weighing about 1^ pounds without causing 
any marked symptoms. 

These experiments do not afford sufficient data upon which to base 
anv very definite conclusions, but it seems certain that the basal portion 
of the leaves of 3"oung plants is more toxic than the green f oliaceous 
part, and it may be safely assumed that the leaves of the older plants 
are likewise less toxic. When the stems are older, the}^ are not so 
tempting to stock in Montana, because at that time there is an abun- 
dance of wholesome fodder, and it iwaj be that the mere failure of stock 
to eat the stems in that stage has given rise to the idea that the tops 
of the older plants are not poisonous. It is more than likel}^ that the 
older stems, containing as much oil as they do, are poisonous, but to 
a much less degree than the root, which is responsible for a large per- 
centage of the cases of water-hemlock poisoning which occur in the 
State. 

Experiment ^, — The remedies which were tried in cases of poisoning 
by this plant include morphine and chloral hydrate, combined in a 
few instances with emptying the stomach hy means of rumenotomy 
(paunching), and the use of cathartics. Potassium permanganate was 
not tried in any of these cases for the reason that the violent physio- 
logical effects of the poison were already sharply pronounced when 
the animals were seen. Jt was thereby evident that most of the poison 



84 STOCK-POISOFING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

had alreadj^ been absorbed out of the stomach, and could therefore not 
be affected by permanganate of potassium in the stomach. 

Two sheep were given morphine hypodermically in quarter-grain 
doses at intervals of five minutes. No'decided effects of the morphine 
were observed until after the third dose, when the sheep became grad- 
ually calmer. After receiving five doses both sheep lay down in a 
partly stupefied condition, from which they did not arouse for several 
hours. These sheep ultimately recovered from the poisoning, although 
its effects were noticeable for four or five days. 

Experitnent 5. — An experiment was tried with chloral hydrate as 
an antidote for poisoning by water hemlock. One sheep was given 
one-half ounce of chloral hydrate in three equal doses at intervals of 
ten minutes. The effect of this substance was not so immediate as 
was that of morphine, but seemed to be otherwise very similar. The 
sheep finally passed into a stupor similar to that produced by mor- 
phine, from which it emerged after about two hours. The sheep did 
not manifest any further violent symptoms as the result of the pois- 
oning, but it did not recover its appetite, and, after drooping about 
for three days, finally died. It would seem that in this case the violent 
effects of the poison were not counteracted quickly enough to enable 
the animal to make a final recovery. 

Experiment 6. — In one case where four cows were poisoned with 
water hemlock one of the number was seen when the first s3^mptoms 
of poisoning began to be shown. The stomach was at once opened at 
the point where the ordinary operation of paunching is performed and 
the stomach contents were removed. A large enema of lukewarm 
water was then given, followed by a drench of melted lard. No direct 
antidotes were given in this case. The animal, however, did not exhibit 
the most violent S3'mptoms of the poisoning and made a complete re- 
covery after two da3^s without an}^ further care. The three other 
cows died before any treatment could be given. In one other case of 
poisoning from water hemlock a cow was given two 1-ounce doses of 
chloral h3^drate fifteen minutes apart with ver}^ satisfactory results. 

SYMPTOMS OF POISONING. 

The symptoms of poisoning from this plant were most closely studied 
in sheep. The animals manifested signs of severe pain very quickly 
after the appearance of the first S3^mptoms. In sheep the first sign of 
poisoning was usually an attempt on the part of the sheep to run away 
from the band or to run in any direction in which it happened to get 
started. There were also manifestations of great cerebral frenzy, 
accompanied by involuntar3" muscular movements which resembled 
to some extent the movements of animals when suffering from colic. 
The respiration was labored and somewhat irregular, the pulse was 
wiry and intermittent. It is, however, a difficult matter in most cases 



WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK. 85 

to make reliable observations on this point, for the reason that an 
attempt to manipulate the animal alwaj^s results in increasing the 
mental excitement and the violence of the muscular spasms. These 
spasms rapidly become more and more severe as the cerebral excite- 
ment increases until the animal appears to be in an unconscious condi- 
tion and dies in the most violent spasms. In some cases of cattle 
poisoned by this plant the victims died within fifteen minutes after 
the first signs of poisoning had appeared. In other cases among both 
sheep and cattle where the first sj^mptoms succeeded one another less 
rapidly the animal lived for two or three hours, dying finally from 
exhaustion, apparently as the result of the violent muscular convulsions. 

REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 

Water hemlock is to be considered as a dangerous poisonous plant, 
especiallv because so large a percentage of the animals poisoned by it 
ultimatel}^ die, and because its action is so rapid that the possibility of 
treating a large number of simultaneous cases is practically precluded. 
It will readily be understood that in any case where several hundred 
animals are poisoned at the same time considerable skill will be required 
to administer even a simple treatment to each animal in time to pre- 
vent the fatal eflects of the poisoning. But the difiiculty is especially 
great when one has to deal with a plant like water hemlock, of which a 
fatal dose may produce death within fifteen minutes. As already 
indicated, antidotes for poisoning from this plant may be applied with 
success if the animals are noticed immediatel}^ after the first symptoms 
of poisoning appear. Too often, however, especially in the case of 
cattle, the poisoning is not discovered until it is too late to give any 
remedial treatment. 

Permanganate of potash should be promptly administered as pre- 
viously recommended for poisoning by other plants. If violent 
symptoms are already apparent, give morphine or some other sedative 
hypodermically. In no case should these be administered by way of 
the mouth if the permanganate has already been given. Morphine 
should be given in doses as follows: For adult sheep, 11 grains; for 
cattle and horses, 3 to 10 grains. 

The distribution of water hemlock is much less extensive in the 
localities where it grows than is that of death camas. It would seem, 
therefore, to be a comparatively easy matter to prevent sheep from 
grazing on areas where it occurs, at least during the spring and 
summer. It seldom happens that water hemlock is found along the 
whole course of the stream or around the whole circumference of a 
lake. There are, in nearly every case, places free from it at which 
the sheep could be watered with safety. In case the water hemlock 
grows along the banks of the stream at points which are the most con- 
venient watering places, it could here be exterminated with a moderate 



86 STOCK-POISOinNG PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

amount of labor. This can be done b}- repeatedly cutting it down, or 
in other ways. It is advisable to avoid the use of hay containing 
water hemlock. The plants should be removed from native meadows 
before mowing. Sheep herders should become thoroughly acquainted 
with the appearance of the plant, so as to be able to recognize it in 
any of its stages. An illustration of the value of such knowledge is 
found in the case of a herder who made several attempts to water his 
sheep at different points along the bank of a certain stream with dis- 
astrous consequences in each case. A close observation would have 
shown that the same plant was the cause of the poisoning in all cases. 

SUMMARY. 

Water hemlock is widely distributed in Montana along water courses 
and in swamp}^ places from the lowest altitudes up to about 7,500 feet. 

The roots have long been known to be fatal when eaten by stock, 
and cases of poisoning of stock have been reported from eating dry 
seeded specimens in hay. 

Our observations from May to July, 1900, showed that a number of 
cattle and sheep ate the young plants, including in some cases the 
roots, with fatal results in about 80 per cent of the cases. 

Our experiments demonstrated that the basal portions of the plants 
less than 1^ feet high were poisonous to rabbits, and that morphine 
and chloral hydrate are useful in counteracting the physiological 
effects of this plant. 

In cases where large quantities of the plant, especially the root, are 
eaten, death results so quickly that remedial measures can not be 
applied. 

WHITE LOCO WEED.^ 

{Aragallus spicatus (Hook.) Rydberg.) 

DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION. 

An erect, tufted perennial, 4 to 18 inches high, without branches, 
with pinnate leaves and narrow leaflets and spikes of white or slightly 
cream-colored flowers resembling those of the pea (Pis. IX and X). 
The pod is one-celled and when ripe the seed produces a rattling sound 
which gives the plant the name rattleweed. It is exceedingly com- 
mon throughout the State, but grows most abundantly on the northern 
slopes of foothills and mountains up to an altitude of about 8,000 
feet. While it grows freely on nearly all the important ranges of the 
State, it is most abundant in Judith Basin, the Musselshell country, 
and the Yellowstone Valle3^ The situations in which it grows are 
for the most part rather dry, and in many cases it is found quite 
abundantly on dry prairie ranges. The habitat of the plant seems 

^ For other loco weeds, see page 99. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate IX. 




White Loco Weed (Aragallus spicatus\ in Flower. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate X. 




White Loco Weed iAragallus spicatus', in Fruit. 



WHITE LOCO WEED. 87 

to vary slightl}" in different parts of the State. In the Judith Basin 
and in the Sun River country it does not grow plentifully on the level 
prairie, while in these same regions the foothills are so completely 
covered with it that they appear as large white tracts when the plant 
is in full bloom. On the other hand in the range country along the 
course of the Musselshell River the white loco weed is met with more 
extensively on the high prairie ranges. Attention has already been 
called to the fact that as a general rule native ranges are freer from 
poisonous plants the farther one goes away from the mountains. This 
statement is also true of the white loco weed, which seldom occurs 
abundantly on any prairie range in Montana at a distance of 20 miles 
from the mountains. 

HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 

For man}^ years a disease called loco, affecting cattle, horses, and 
sheep, has been generally known to the stockmen of the western 
ranges. This disease has most commonly been attributed to the action 
of certain plants, more rarely to that of alkali. Several species of 
plants have been suspected of producing the loco condition in animals 
and have been called loco plants or loco weeds and also crazy weeds 
from the nature of the disease. Nearly all of the plants which have 
been considered loco weeds belong to two genera of the pea family, 
Astragalus and Aragallus, These genera are represented by numer- 
ous species on the western stock ranges. Most of the species are 
somewhat restricted in their distribution either to the southern or 
northern portion of the range country, or grow more abundantly in 
one region than in another. In Colorado the plant which is most com- 
monly known as loco weed is Astragalus mollissmius. In Montana, 
on the other hand, the plants most generally called loco weeds by the 
stockmen are species of Aragallus. A number of other plants have 
occasionally been mistaken for loco weeds, and among these may be 
mentioned species of Astragalus and lupine. The species which is 
most concerned in causing the loco disease in Montana is Ai'agallus 
spicatus and is closely related to A. lamhertii. 

It is the belief of a number of stockmen that a condition almost, 
if not quite, the same as the loco disease may be produced in sheep by 
eating undue quantities of alkali soil. Reference has already been 
made to the fact that some stockmen do not salt their animals at all, 
or only at long intervals. When animals are not salted regularl}^ they 
soon discover localities where large quantites of alkali are found in the 
soil and visit such places frequently for the purpose of eating this alkali 
soil. A few of the more observant sheep raisers have come to believe 
that sheep are less apt to become locoed when regularly salted than 
when they eat large quantities of alkali in consequence of not being 
supplied with salt. For this fact two explanations have been offered. 



88 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

On the one hand a number of sheep raisers believe that the eating of 
large quantities of alkali is itself the cause of the loco disease. A few 
sheep men have maintained that the locoed condition is in every case 
due to eating alkali or to drinking strongl}^ alkaline water. This asser- 
tion is definitely disproved by the fact that sheep and horses are known 
to have become locoed while feeding on mountain ranges where no 
alkali soil was to be found and where all of the water was free from 
alkali. A considerable number of sheep became locoed while feeding 
on a range of this character on the slopes of the Rockies near Augusta, 
Mont. No alkali was to be found on this range in either soil or water. 
These sheep were removed to another range where the loco weed did 
not grow so abundantly, but where all the water was somewhat alka- 
line. Their condition improved slightly under the changed conditions, 
although they were still able to find and eat the loco weed in small 
quantities. 

On the other hand, an equally large number of sheep men believe 
that there is no connection between the loco disease and alkali. A 
second explanation for the observed fact that sheep most frequently 
acquire the loco habit when not salted is that the lack of salt and the 
phj'^siological action of the alkali may bring about a depraved appetite 
which manifests itself in the formation of the loco habit. As already 
stated in a previous part of this report,^ the different forms of alkali, 
such as are found in Montana, can scarcely be considered substitutes 
for common salt in the animal economy. Disturbances in the normal 
physiology of animals are likely to result in the majority of cases from 
total absence of salt. It is well known that a number of diseased con- 
ditions in animals are accompanied with manifestations of a depraved 
appetite. From a general description given of the loco disease it is 
apparent that this condition might very justly be termed a perverted 
appetite. It has, to be sure, not been demonstrated by actual observa- 
tion that the depraved appetite which is shown in the formation of 
the habit of eating loco weeds is in every instance the result of the first 
taste of these plants. A number of observations made by the prin- 
cipal sheep raisers and by ourselves indicate, as already stated, that 
sheep more frequently form the habit of eating the loco plants when 
not regularl}' supplied with salt than when abundantl}^ furnished with 
this substance. All reliable observations point to the conclusion that 
it is highly desirable to supply sheep with a sufiicient quantit}^ of salt, 
which they can get whenever they wish it. 

It has been frequently suggested that the peculiar effects produced 
by eating loco weeds are due to inadequate nutrition. In such a theory 
it is of course assumed that the loco weeds do not contain the elements 
necessary to the diet of a sheep or horse. The proof of this assertion 
is not forthcoming, and it seems more reasonable to believe that the 

iPages20,21. 



WHITE LOCO WEED. 81) 

plants contain a poisonous principle which is harmful to domestic 
animals. 

It should be stated also that the larvae of sheep bot flies, which are 
f requentlj^ found in the frontal sinuses of the head, can not possibly be 
considered the cause of the nervous symptoms characteristic of the 
loco disease, for the reason that these larvae are not found in greater 
abundance in locoed than in healthy sheep. For the same reason the 
presence of the common tape worm {Taenia serrata) in the small intes- 
tines and bile duct of sheep can not be considered as the cause of the 
locoed condition. These worms are almost universally present in the 
intestines of sheep, and under ordinary conditions do not cause any 
recognizable disturbances. The disease of sheep known as gid is not 
to be mistaken for the loco disease and, furthermore, is not prevalent 
in this country. No indications were found during the post-mortem 
examinations that the walls of the stomach were affected to any appre- 
ciable extent by the action of loco weeds, although these plants were 
invariably found in the stomach contents of such sheep. In the 
majority of cases no apparent changes have been produced in the 
spleen, liver, or kidneys. In some instances a slight congestion of the 
intestines was noticed. The cerebral membranes were in all cases 
somewhat congested. This condition is probably one of the immediate 
physical causes of the mental excitement exhibited by locoed animals. 
Post-mortem examinations of locoed horses disclosed the same condi- 
tions as those found in the sheep. 

The most reliable observations on the subject of loco disease indicate 
that it is the result of eating undue quantities of certain weeds, of 
which a number are known. The disease ma}^ assume either an active 
or chronic form. In the active form the animal lives but a few da5^s, 
w^hile in the chronic form it may live for two or more years and man- 
ifest the same sj^mptoms in a milder degree. The eating of alkali may 
bring about a perverted appetite which leads the animal to eat loco 
weed. Otherwise alkali seems to have no connection with the loco 
disease. 

The horse and the sheep are the animals which are most frequently 
affected by loco disease. Cattle occasionall}^ acquire the loco habit, 
but the cases are comparatively rare. In certain parts of Montana 
the habit became so wide-spread among horses that the raising of them 
was abandoned until the locoed animals were disposed of and other 
horses which had not the loco habit had been imported. 

That this plant is seldom eaten by sheep, even under stress of hmiger 
(unless addicted to its use), is evident from the fact that in a case of 
poisoning which happened near Toston, Mont., everything else, includ- 
ing the terminal branchlets of grease wood ( Chrysothamnus nauseosus) 
and sage brush {Artemisia tridentata)^ and even the thorny branches 
of a wild rose, was eaten, while many flowering plants of the white 



90 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

loco weed were left uneaten. No evidence was, in fact, obtained to 
show that any of the plants had been even slightly browsed upon by 
the sheep. 

During the progress of field work in Montana in 1900, about 650 
locoed sheep and 150 locoed horses were seen. The locoed horses 
were nearly all in one herd, and of the 650 locoed sheep 500 were in 
one band and 150 in another. The owner of the band in which 500 
locoed sheep were found had lost during the preceding winter 700 
sheep from loco weed. The extent of losses among stock from eating 
loco weeds is probably larger than is usually suspected. The appear- 
ance of locoed animals has become so common that it attracts little 
attention, and few reports are made by individual stockmen on the 
number of animals affected b}^ loco disease. Among sheep the num- 
ber could be ascertained with comparative ease, but with horses an 
estimate of the number could only be made after a careful round-up. 
It is safe to assume that the number of the latter is large, since a few 
are to be seen in almost all parts of the State. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

The specimens used in experiments 1 and 2 were collected May 25, 
by Arthur Williams, on gravell}" plains near Crow Creek, at Toston, 
Mont., and were received May 27. They were kept moist in a tin 
box until May 28. The plants were mostly in fruit, but some speci- 
mens were still in flower, and when used all parts were turgid as they 
are when fresh. The larger semi-fleshy and coriaceous pods were 
separated in one lot, w^hile the leaves were put in another. The large 
fruiting specimen and the small showy flowers shown in PI. X illus- 
trate the stage of growth of the parts used in experiments 1 and 2. 
Both parts were extracted with water and 50 per cent alcohol in the 
same way. 

Fifty grams of the leaves and the flowering top (no large pods) 
were thoroughly rubbed up in a mortar with about 90 c. c. of water and 
allowed to soak over night at ordinar}^ temperature. It was then 
warmed over a water bath at about blood heat for a half hour, after 
which the water extract was separated from the fiber by means of a 
filter pump and by squeezing tightly in a strong linen bag. The resi- 
due was set to soak with about 90 c. c. of 50 per cent alcohol, while 
the filtrate, to prevent contamination by molds, was placed on ice 
and kept cold until May 31. Both the alcoholic and water extracts 
were finall}" made up to 100 c. c. in volume. 

Experhnent 1. — On May 3, at 11.10 a. m., a young Belgian hare 
weighing 32 ounces received in the stomach b}^ means of a syringe 10 
c. c. of the water extract. A slight uneasiness was apparent at 12.45, 
and a noticeable lack of appetite at 1.35, when five other rabbits, dosed 
with other extract at the same time, were eating well. At 2,50, 15 c. c. 



WHITE LOCO WEED. 91 

more was given in the same way- The uneasiness continued, and at 
3.25 the animal was quite drowsy, a s3^mptom which continued until 
3.50. At 4.5 its appetite was better. Twenty cubic centimeters 
were given at 7.45, shortly before stopping work for the da}^, but no 
symptoms other than a slight drowsiness were noted. The stock solu- 
tion was slightl}^ moldy on June 5. On June 7 the rabbit's respiration 
was rapid, and the animal was bright and vigorous. None of the com- 
monly described symptoms of loco weed poisoning were noted at any 
stage of the experiment, but it is quite possible that had the feeding 
of the extract been continued they would have developed. The experi- 
ment simply indicates that the water extract of the leaves, as prepared 
in the above waj", is not an acute poison in the doses administered. 

The residues, after extracting the pods and the leaves respectively 
with water on May 28, were soaked in 50 per cent alcohol until June 
16, when the}^ were filtered and given hypodermically to two rabbits. 
One and a half cubic centimeters of the leaf extract, diluted so that it 
contained but 33 per cent of alcohol, produced no noticeable effect 
other than that produced by the alcohol itself. The same amount of 
the 50 per cent alcoholic extract of the pods was likewise without 
noticeable effect. 

Experiment 2. — On June 13 more of the plant, with fully developed 
green pods, was secured and, exclusive of the tough stems, was ground 
up in a sausage machine and extracted for an hour at ordinary tem- 
peratures hj grinding up small portions in a mortar with an equal 
weight of water. All of the fractional parts were placed together 
and the extract separated by means of a filter press. This was slightly 
diluted, so that a cubic centimeter of the liquid was equivalent to a 
gram of the fresh material. On June 11, 250 c. c. of this was fed at 
8.30 a. m. to a sheep weighing about 60 pounds. No effect having been 
noted, an equal amount was administered in the same way at 11 o'clock. 
No toxic or even prominent physiological effect was noted the next 
morning, when the animal grazed as usual. 

Experiment 3. — An acute case of loco disease was observed in a two- 
year-old ewe with a lamb at her side. The band had been moved to a 
new part of the range on the morning of May 22, and the ewe in 
question was observed eating large quantities of the white loco weed 
{Aragallus sjpicatus). She was first seen eating this plant at 10 o'clock 
a. m., and about 7.30 p. m., when the herder started the band for the 
coi'ral, she was unmanageable and the lamb was sick. An examination 
of the ewe at this time showed that she was completeh' blind. A 
slight locomotor ataxia was manifested. The ewe walked around in 
long circles to the right, the neck being curved in that direction. 
Whenever she came in contact with any object, she pushed against it 
until exhausted and then remained standing for an instant in a sort of 
stupor. At the beginning of each attack the head was slightly elevated 



92 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

and turned to the right. The ej^elids twitched rapidl}^ and there was 
a slight champing of the jaws. After this manifestation the animal 
began to walk in a circle to the right. Each attack lasted from one to 
two minutes and the intervals between the attacks were about five 
minutes. On the morning of the second day it was at once apparent 
that the attacks Avere becoming more severe. Their length and the 
interval between them were the same as on the previous day. The 
head was now turned much more decidedh^ to the right and the animal 
walked around in much smaller circles. The lips and eyelids twitched 
violently and the jaws were moved upon one another with such force 
that the sound could be heard for a distance of 200 yards. Similar 
symptoms, accompanied by digestive disturbances, were manifested in 
the lamb during the second day, and it died in the afternoon. On the 
morning of the third day it was found that the ewe had apparently 
been pushing against the fence during a greater portion of the night 
and was in a much more serious condition than on the second day. 
She now wheeled around and around to the right, the neck being 
curved so abruptly as to cause her to fall frequently. It was notice- 
able, however, that the involuntary twitching of the eyelids and lips 
and the grinding of the jaws had ceased. The spasmodic muscular 
movements were largely confined to the legs. By the afternoon of the 
third day the animal was unable to stand and the symptoms were 
entirely confined to convulsive movements of the legs. On the 
morning of the fourth da}' the animal died. The pupil of the eye 
was at no time dilated and its expression was perfectly normal. The 
pulse on the first day was irregular and intermittent. From 8 to 10 
beats occurred in rapid succession, followed by an interval in which 
from -i to 5 beats were omitted. On the second day the pulse was 
regular and of normal frequency and strength. During the third day 
the pulse became rapid and weaker. The respiration was at first 
perfectly normal, during the second day it became more rapid, and on 
the third day it was exceedingly shallow and rapid. The only remedy 
which was tried in this case consisted of frequent hj^podermic injections 
of one-fourth-grain doses of morphine. During the forenoon of the 
second day six doses were given at intervals of fifteen minutes, appar- 
ently with no eflect. The attacks of trembling and spasms became 
during this treatment more severe, as they probably would have done 
if no morphine had been administered. In the lamb belonging to this 
ewe potassium permanganate was tried. One dose of 1 gram of this 
substance was given by means of a direct injection into the stomach. 
The lamb lived much longer than other lambs which were affected in 
the same way and were not treated, but it finally succumbed. Two 
other ewes ate small quantities of the loco weed at the same time and 
were affected in the way which has just been described, except that all 
of the symptoms were mild in degree. In these two cases morphine 



WHITE LOCO WEED. 93 

was aj^aiii tried with much better success. The spasms became less 
pronounced and the ewes recovered on the second da3\ The lambs, 
however, had died in the meantime from the poison contained in the 
milk of the mother. The lambs in these three cases were two weeks 
old and had not eaten loco weed or any other plants. 

SYMPTOJIS OF POISONING. 

The symptoms of loco disease in animals are familiar to all stock 
raisers. Perhaps the most characteristic are those of cerebral origin, 
consisting in peculiar irregularities in gait and action, which may be 
compared to a drunken condition in men. Sheep and other animals 
affected by this disease are commonly said to be crazy or locoed. The 
cerebral disturbance may consist in an impairment of the function of 
the special senses, or in improperly regulated motor impulses which 
produce a more or less pronounced incoordination of muscular move- 
ment. Sight is frequently much impaired. In some cases the animal 
soon becomes totally blind. This condition is reached more often in 
acute cases than in chronic cases of loco disease. More frequently the 
animal simply sees incorrectly or makes errors in judgment of size or 
distance of objects. These errors in judgment of ocular perceptions 
are a common occurrence and are often so pronounced as to become 
ludicrous. A locoed horse upon being driven up to a gate may either 
attempt to jump over the crossbar, which is usually placed at the 
height of about 15 feet, or may lower his head from fear of striking- 
it. Simple experiments indicate that both sheep and horses in a locoed 
condition frequently mistake harmless things for dangerous enemies. 
In horses which are affected with the chronic form of loco disease one 
has abundant opportunity to observe man}^ peculiar and senseless 
actions which are evidently due to cerebral disease. Locoed horses 
are often used for Ijoth draft and driving purposes. Such horses may 
work or travel in a perfectly normal manner for days at a time. They 
frequentl}^, however, run away or aie attacked with kicking fits with- 
out an}^ apparent external cause. Observations made on horses which 
are only slightly locoed indicate that they do at times become fright- 
ened by purely imaginary objects. This fright would seem, however, 
to be none the less real, since such horses often tremble or become 
covered with a cold sweat after these imaginary dangers are passed. 

The sense of hearing is frequently affected in locoed animals, as is 
easily demonstrated by simple experiments. The response to various 
sounds and noises is not always in accordance with the character or 
volume of the sound. At times a loud noise is unheeded, while at 
other times a slight noise of the same character may produce fright. 
The locoed animals are often unable to judge correctly the direction 
from which sounds come. 

Irregularities of the muscular movements of locoed animals may 



94 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

assume a variety of forms. The animal may simply carr}^ its head in 
an extended or otherwise unnatural position. In some cases the arched 
carriage of the back is to he noticed with awkward movements of the 
legs. Trembling is a frequently noticed characteristic of the locoed 
animal. This may be confined to the legs, especially to the knees, or 
ma}^ involve all the voluntarj^ muscles, and occurs in a most pronounced 
manner after any fright which the animal may have experienced. It 
is often observed of locoed horses that even when they are able to 
move forward with considerable precision they experience difiiculty in 
backing. 

It is the universal experience of sheep raisers that locoed sheep are 
exceedingly difiicult to herd. The sheep may, without a moment's 
warning, stray away from the band, each one in a different direction, 
and it is easy to understand how nearl}-^ impossible it is to prevent 
such a band of sheep from becoming separated. Besides giving the 
herder much trouble in directing the course of the band on the range, 
locoed sheep often refuse to enter the corral at night, and under any 
and all circumstances may suddenly manifest perplexing stubbornness. 

Few cases of locoed cattle have come under our observation. The 
symptoms, however, in cattle are essentially the same as in sheep and 
horses. Occasionally locoed cattle manifest dangerous symptoms and 
attack man or animals. It is difficult to understand why the loco habit 
is apparently so rare in cattle as compared with sheep and horses. In 
their ordinary feeding habits cattle can hardly be said to be as fastidi- 
ous in selecting forage plants as horses. The fact remains, however, 
that cattle do not acquire the habit of eating loco weeds to anj^" great 
extent. 

Man}^ sheep raisers believe that in sheep one of the effects of eating 
the loco weeds is an elongation and loosening of the teeth. As this 
condition is almost invariabl}^ noticed in sheep from a year and a half 
to two 3''ears old it would appear to be quite possible that this is 
mereh" the natural phenomenon of shedding the teeth, which occurs 
at the age just mentioned. The symptom in question is one which is 
almost always mentioned by sheep raisers as characteristic of the 
locoed condition. No careful and continued observations have been 
made which would enable one to come to anj' definite conclusion in 
regard to the matter. The suggestion that the loosening of the teeth 
is merely a natural process of shedding the teeth was made by Dr. 
M. E. Knowles, State veterinarian of Montana, and seems, according 
to available observations on the subject, far more reasonable than the 
other theory. As this loosening of the teeth occurs at the age when 
the loco habit is most apt to be acquired, in the frequent examinations 
made by stockmen it might easily be mistaken for an effect of eating 
loco weed. 

In chronic cases of the loco habit in sheep the animal, as already 



WHITE LOCO WEED. -95 

stated, becomes more and more emaciated and crazy. One of the fre- 
quent effects of this habit is the shedding of the fleece as a whole or 
in patches. The animal becomes unable to take care of itself and, 
unless carefully watched, is apt to fall into the water and be drowned 
while attempting to drink. The sight becomes more and more 
affected until the animal is unable to direct its course properly or to 
keep along with the band. Fits of trembling are of frequent occur- 
rence during the later stages of the disease, and iinalh" the animal 
dies from inadequate nutrition and total exhaustion as the result of 
the muscular convulsions. 

In chronic cases of loco disease in horses the animal is usuall}^ left 
to its own resources on the range. During the later stages it loses to 
a large degree the power of locomotion and remains for two or three 
wrecks at a time upon a small area of ground. We have had the 
opportunity of observing a number of such cases in horses which 
were almost unable to walk. Under these circumstances the animals 
seldom or never lie down, and it may be doubted whether the}" could 
get up if they once should lie down. One horse which was under con- 
tinuous observation for a period of two weeks in 1897 remained dur- 
ing this time upon a piece of ground about 150 feet square. The 
ground and vegetation were unusually dry, and the horse had no water 
during the two Weeks. At the end of this time the animal walked 
about 1 mile to a small stream where, in attempting to drink, it fell 
and was unable to get upon its feet again. It seems very difficult to 
understand how, under the dry conditions of the open plain, animals 
can live so long without water. 

Numerous autopsies made on locoed sheep and horses revealed con- 
ditions which, though fairly uniform, did not constitute a well-defined 
series. Naturally the post-mortem findings in case of animals allowed 
to die a natural death from the loco disease will differ from those of 
animals which are killed and bled before being examined. As stated 
in the description of the symptoms, locoed animals usually die in more 
or less violent spasms. As a result of these spasms the blood is found 
after death unevenly distributed in the blood vessels. The lungs are 
frequently found to be congested for the reason that the blood was 
inadequately aerated at the time of death. We made a large number 
of post-mortem examinations upon bodies of locoed sheep which had 
been killed and bled immediately before examination. In these cases 
there was no lesion or marked changes in the alimentary tract. A 
slight congestion of the membranes of the brain was to be observed 
in all cases. The lungs and heart were apparently not affected. The 
voluntary muscles were of a paler color than under normal conditions, 
and the fat tissue was considerably reduced in quantit}^ 

Undoubtedly a serious mistake has been made by a majority of sheep 
me a who have suffered losses from the loco disease in allowing the 



96 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

locoed sheep to remain with the band. The loco habit seems to be 
learned by imitation, and as long as locoed sheep are allowed to 
remain with other sheep the number of cases of locoed animals rapidly 
increases. Stockmen have frequently suggested the possibility of 
animals inheriting the tendency to eat loco weeds. There seems, how- 
ever, to be no support for such a theory. When once started, the 
spread of the disease seems to depend almost entirely upon imitation, 
one sheep learning the habit from another. On one range in Montana 
we found 500 locoed sheep in one band. The owner of this band stated 
that the number of locoed sheep in the band was constantly increasing, 
and at the same time the worst cases were dying from day to day. 
During the previous winter he had lost 700 sheep from loco disease. 
With the sheep on this ranch the habit of eating loco weeds had pre- 
vailed for two years. Previous to that time no cases of locoed sheep 
had been observed, although sheep had been raised upon the range for 
fifteen years. The habit had not been acquired in consequence of any 
increased abundance of the loco weed. This plant had been observed 
in great quantities on the range as far back as could be remembered. 
Another band of sheep, belonging to a neighboring sheep man, acci- 
dentall}' came in contact with the band containing the 500 locoed sheep 
during the early spring of 1900. In the early part of May the herder 
of this second band reported that he noticed two or three cases of 
locoed sheep in his band. By June 25, when this band of sheep was 
brought to the shearing shed, the number of locoed sheep in it was 
found to have increased to 150. This one instance will serve to illus- 
trate how rapidly the habit of eating loco spreads among sheep, and 
should furnish a forcible argument for removing all cases from the 
band as soon as discovered. In another part of the State an experi- 
enced sheep raiser became nearly ruined tinancially through his sheep 
acquiring the loco habit. By adopting the method of immediately 
isolating the affected .sheep, feeding them for mutton, and replacing 
them with sheep which are free from the loco habit, he has entirely 
eradicated this trouble on his ranch, although the loco weeds grow thei-e 
as abundantly as ever. 

The fact has generall}^ been observed b}^ sheep raisers that the habit 
of eating loco weed is usually acquired by young sheep from the age of 
4 to 18 months. Old sheep seldom acquire it. The loco habit has 
frequently been compared to the morphine and chloral habits in man, 
and in some respects the two habits seem to be comparable. In sheep 
which have never before eaten the loco weed, large quantities of it 
frequently cause death within from one to three da3^s. In chronic 
cases of the loco habit the animal seems to acquire a sort of immunity 
or increased resisting power against the action of the loco weed. In 
such cases the first effect of eating seems to be that of a stimulant. 
This is more easily observed in animals afflicted with the chronic loco 



WHITE LOCO WEED. 97 

habit when allowed to cat the loco weed after a period of enforced 
abstinence. Such animals at first become excited, but as more and 
more of the plant is eaten a depressant or stupefying effect is noticed, 
such as is characteristic of cases of the chronic loco habit. The habit 
assumes the form of an insatiable appetite, with the result that the 
animal continually searches for the loco weed and feeds upon it to 
the exclusion of other forage plants. Sheep may be seen hurrying 
with trembling gait from one loco plant to another, devouring each 
with nervous haste. The habit is sometimes observed already fixed 
in lambs 2 months old. One of the inevitable results of eating the 
loco weed exclusively is that the quantity of fodder obtained during 
the da}^ is insufficient, or, where the weed grows in great abundance, 
the variety of diet is too small and the nutritive ration is unbalanced. 

REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 

No specific remedy for the loco disease has ever been discovered. 
The one definite statement concerning any poisonous principle which 
may be contained in loco weeds is that made by Dr. Carl Ruedi, who 
claims to have isolated an acid, which he called ""loco acid," from Astra- 
galus molissimus, the common loco weed in Colorado. This workhas not 
been corroborated, and it is not at all certain that the same substance 
will be found to be the active principle contained in the loco weeds of 
Montana. In the present state of knowledge on this subject the only 
treatment to be recommended is that of confinement and feeding with 
nutritious diet. It is sometimes possible for the sheep raiser to move 
the band of locoed sheep to a range where none of the plants grow. 
When sheep are unable to obtain the loco weeds a large majority, even 
of chronic cases, may be fattened and will produce good mutton. In 
horses which have had the loco habit for a 3^ear or more, and which 
are then kept in stables or pastures where the locoweed does not grow, 
an apparent recovery takes place, but such animals are apt to show 
the effects of the loco in various vicious habits, such as kicking or 
running away without apparent cause. Sheep which have become 
badlj^ affected with the disease may be inclosed in feeding corrals and 
fattened for market. A sheep raiser of the Yellowstone Valley dis- 
covered in the fall of 1899 that among his sheep he had 1,200 cases of 
loco disease. These 1,200 sheep were immediately separated from the 
other sheep and put together in a corral. The same man bought 1,000 
other locoed sheep from other sheep men in the neighborhood, and fed 
the 2,200 locoed sheep for two months upon alfalfa and various roots. 
At the expiration of this time all of the sheep, with the exception of 
50, had apparently made a complete recovery from the loco disease and 
were in a good condition for market. Of the 50 which were separated 
from the band the majority were cripples and were removed from the 
band for that reason. Onl}^ 3 or 4 sheep out of the 2,200 failed to 
S. Doc. 160 7 



98 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

recover from the effects of the loco weed. Other sheep raisers have 
had similar experience with locoed sheep. There seems to be little 
doubt that such sheep may be brought to a good condition for market 
even after being addicted to the loco habit for a whole season. 

Although, as just indicated, an apparent recovery may be brought 
about in locoed sheep and horses, such animals when allowed to run 
upon the range again almost invariably return to their old habit of 
eating loco weeds. Animals which have once been locoed are, there- 
fore, not to be considered suitable for stocking the range for the reason 
that the majority of them will become locoed again, and for the addi- 
tional reason that other animals will learn the habit and the loco disease 
will thus spread among the stock. 

The recommendation concerning locoed animals which is most in 
accord with reason and the experience of practical stockmen is to 
remove immediately all locoed animals from contact with other animals. 
Following this action it would seem to be advisable, when possible, to 
place such animals on ranges where the locoweed does not grow and 
allow them to remain in such situations until winter. During the 
winter locoed sheep should be fed upon a nutritious diet, and such of 
them as become fat should be sold for mutton at the conclusion of the 
feeding period. The few sheep which do not respond to this treat- 
ment may as well be killed and skinned, as their only value is that of 
the pelt. In the case of horses which are kept away irom the loco 
weed for a considerable length of time, the value of the animal is a 
very uncertain quantity. Such horses ma}^ return to the habit of eat- 
ing loco weeds at tte first opportunity, and even if prevented for a 
time they may develop vicious habits, as already stated. A small per- 
centage of locoed horses apparently make a complete recovery and 
develop into valuable and reliable animals. 

In the case of one large sheep raiser such extensive losses were 
incurred from sheep eating the white loco weed that the ranch was 
finally sold to a new comer who was without experience in the sheep 
business. Sheep were imported from other parts of the State and 
country to stock this ranch, and no case of locoed sheep has been 
observed here for the past four years. The immunity which the new 
owner enjoys from the losses caused by eating white loco weed is, as 
already indicated, not due to an}^ special precaution on his part nor to 
any experience which he has had in managing sheep, nor has the plant 
disappeared from the ranch. His sheep have simply not acquired the 
habit of eating loco weeds. 

Since the loco disease is due to habit it is obviousl}^ impossible to 
apply any such treatment as would be given to a disease which has a 
definite course or to a case of acute poisoning from death camas or other 
plants. In the case of poisoning from death camas, water hemlock, or 
larkspur the result of treatment depends upon the amount of poison 



VARIOUS LOCO WEEDS. 99 

which has been eaten and the promptness with which the remedy is 
applied. In locoed animals, on the other hand, the stockman has 
quite difficult conditions to contend with. He may be able, as in the 
two cases just cited, temporarily to counteract the etfect of eating the 
loco weed. Such cure is, however, only apparent. The habit is formed 
and the animals will at once begin to eat the plant again if turned 
out upon the range. A permanent cure therefore, in the ordinary 
sense of the word, seems to be practically impossible, the loco habit 
being comparable, as already indicated, to various injurious habits of 
men, such as habitual drunkenness and the morphine habit. For 
chronic cases it seems hardly reasonable to expect that any remedy 
will be devised. Their treatment must apparentl}^ proceed on the 
same principles as the treatment of vicious habits of long standing 
in man. 

SUMMARY. 

The white loco weed is a common and widely distributed plant in 
Montana, being especially abundant on slopes with a northern expo- 
sure. It has long been considered by Montana stockmen as the most 
important loco weed. 

Our observations show that eating this plant produces the loco dis- 
ease, and that the loco 1 abit is common in sheep and horses but rare 
in cattle. Fatal efl'ects were noted in one acute and several chronic 
cases in sheep. 

Narcotic effects were produced in a rabbit by feeding an extract of 
the leaves. 

The present state of knowledge concerning the exact physiological 
effect of loco weed is so vague that no specific antidote or medical 
treatment can be recommended. 

Locoed sheep should be removed from the band and fattened for 
market on alfalfa or other forage plants, as above explained. 

The immediate isolation of locoed sheep is advisable in order to 
prevent the habit from spreading in the band. 

It seems desirable to give sheep a regular and abundant supph" of 
salt in order to prevent the development of any perversion of the 
appetite. 

Locoed horses are used to the best advantage as draft animals, but 
they must be maintained in good condition and prevented from eating 
loco weeds. 

OTHER LOCO WEEDS. 

{Aragallus spp.) 

In addition to the white loco weed a number of species in this and 
closely related genera are considered as loco weeds in Montana, among 
which the most important are the silvery loco weed {Aragallus splendeiu 



100 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

(Dougl.) Greene) (PI. XI), and the purple loco weeds {A. hlmikinsMpu 
R3^dberg, A. hesseyi Rydberg, and A. lagojms (Nutt.) Greene). The 
last three species resemble each other so closely that it is difficult for 
anyone not a systematic botanist to distinguish them. The illustra- 
tions of A. hesseyi (PI. XII) and A. lagojyus (PI. XIII), which are 
given herewith, may well serve to show the general appearance of 
each. 

The silver}^ loco weed is a handsome perennial, 6 to 12 inches in 
height, which is soft and hairy throughout, and has narrow cylindrical 
heads of rather inconspicuous flowers. It is fairly common on dry 
open prairies and in native meadows throughout the State, blossoming 
in June. 

Aragalhis hesseyi^ one of the purple loco weeds, is a hairy, tufted 
perennial, 4 to 8 inches high, with numerous long, grayish leaves, 
bearing 5 to 12 pairs of leaflets, and with short heads of showy pur- 
ple flowers. It is common near Bozeman, in Spanish Basin, Judith 
Basin, Smith River Valley, and Missouri Canyon, and in various other 
places throughout the State, growing preferably in dry, rocky, or 
gravelly, barren soil, and blossoming in May and the early part of 
June. A. hlanhinsliljjil closely resembles A. hesseyi. 

A. lagopus is readily distinguished by its larger, more membra- 
naceous pods, shorter leaves, and smaller number of leaflets. 

LUPINES. 

{Lupinus spp.) 
Other names: Blue pea, blue bean, wild pea, wild bean, pea vine. 

DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION. 

These are coarse, silky-haired, perennial herbs, with blue bean-like 
flowers arranged in showy terminal racemes, which blossom in June 
and July. The alternate long-stemmed leaves have from T to 11 leaf- 
lets which radiate from a common point. The fruit is a hairy, sev- 
eral-seeded, bean-like pod, and the seeds are small and somewhat 
flattened. 

The species which interest us here are: L. leucophyUus (PI. XIV), 
in which the flower clusters are dense and manj^-flowered on short 
stems; L. sericem (PL XV), in which they are looser and shorter, with 
fewer but larger flowers and longer stems, and L. cyaneus, which is 
quite similar to the other two species, resembling more nearly L. leu- 
coj)hyllus, but differing in its larger and coarser habit. 

These plants belong to the pea family, but are easily distinguished 
from the loco weeds and other common wild species of this family by 
the character of the leaf. The leaves are compound, and the several 
parts are all attached to the end of the leaf stem, radiating from this 
point in different directions. A number of stockmen call these plants 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of , 



Plate XI 



^ f 













Silvery Loco Weed (Aragallus splendens) 



^ 



y 



■Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XII. 




Purple Loco Weed iAragallus besseyi). 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XIII. 




Purple Loco Weed i Aragallus lagopusi. 



Bui, 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr, 



Plate XIV. 




Lupine iLupinus leucophyllus). 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of 



Plate XV. 




Lupine (Lupinus sericeusi. 



LUPINES. 101 

lupines, but perhaps the names wild bean, blue bean, and blue pea 
are more generally applied to them in Montana. There are a number 
of species which occur within the limits of the State, but they so 
much resemble one another that a person who knows one of them will 
easily recognize the others. On account of their practical importance 
it seems highly desirable that stockmen should become sufficiently 
acquainted with these plants to recognize them at a glance, and should 
learn to call them lupines, since this name is commonly used by botan- 
ists and agriculturists in the United States and Europe. Some uncer- 
tainty has existed in the minds of a number of stockmen regarding the 
identity of the loco weeds and lupines. In a few instances illustrations 
have been noticed in agricultural papers of the white loco weed 
{Aragallus spicattiH) which were labeled "loco weed or lupine." But 
loco weeds and lupines are not at all alike either in their effects or in 
their appearance. A glance at the photographs of these two plants 
will show at once the striking differences in their leaf characters and 
should enable anyone to distinguish them (Pis. IX to XV). 

The third of the lupines above mentioned, L. eycmeus^ is abundant 
around Livingston and Bigtimber and probably elsewhere in the 
State. In this paper it is generall}^ not distinguished from Z. leuco- 
2)hyUiis, with which it is practically identical. As regards Z. leuco- 
p/ii/llus and Z. se7'iceus, no good evidence could be obtained that the 
preferred soil and climatic conditions of these two species differ to 
any noticeable degree. The species, however, are not usually found 
growing in the same localities. Lxipinus leucophyllus is found in 
Yellowstone, Sweet Grass, Park, Gallatin, Madison, Meagher, Jef- 
ferson, Deerlodge, Ravalli, llathead, Teton, Choteau, Lewis and 
Clarke, Cascade, and Fergus counties. This species is the most 
widely distributed and most abundant of all lupines which grow in the 
State. Lujp'mns sericeus was found in Carbon, Park, Gallatin, 
Meagher, Cascade, Choteau, and Teton counties. Both these species 
are found ranging from the lowest valleys to an altitude of 8,000 feet. 
As a rule the lupines do not grow in the flat river bottoms. The 
usual location in which they are abundant is on sloping hillsides or 
upon parts of mountain ranges at moderate elevations. In many 
parts of the State these plants grow so profusely in such localities as 
to cover the ground completely, and when the lupines are in full 
bloom, these areas are visible from distances of several miles. The 
inmiense tracts of lupines, with their bright blue flowers, are familiar 
to all stockmen. 

HISTORY AS POISONOUS PLANTS. 

Circumstances affecting their injurious character. — During the season 
of 1900 these plants began to bloom about Ma}^ 20, and the first full 
pods were collected on June 5. As already stated, the season was 



102 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

unusually advanced, and these dates are earlier than they would be in 
an average year. 

So far as we have been able to observe, lupines are not very exten- 
sively eaten by sheep during the spring and summer. This statement 
is at least true for normal conditions where sheep are acquainted with 
the range and are not being trailed or driven. Horses and cattle take 
kindly to lupines and eat them in large quantities during their imma- 
ture stages. When sheep are being trailed through strange country, 
or when they have just been unloaded from cars, and are in a hungry 
condition, they eat lupines ravenously in an}^ stage of growth. The lu- 
pines are not considered valuable as forage plants for sheep until after 
early fall frosts, or until other forage plants have become dry and unin- 
viting as fodder. In late fall, and especiall}^ after early snowstorms, 
the lupines constitute one of the chief forage plants on some of the 
mountain ranges. It should be remembered that the leaves of lupines 
remain green and the plants oflfer slightly succulent forage after other 
plants have become dry. 

Besides furnishing late green forage on the range, the lupines 
constitute one of the most important native hay crops, if one judges 
of the importance of the crop by the amount. In numerous localities 
over the greater portion of the State, lupines cover the ground com- 
pletely on continuous areas of sufficient size to enable the ranchmen to 
cut heavy crops of hay from them. No reports are made which afford 
a basis for any definite estimate of the total quantity cut in the State. 
A moderate estimate would place the quantity at several thousand 
tons per year. In some cases such hay is made up of lupine and a 
number of other plants in almost equal quantities. Ordinarily, how- 
ever, lupine hay is cut on areas where the lupines occupy the ground 
exclusively. Lupine hay is greedily eaten by all kinds of stock during 
the winter. Large quantities are fed every year, and this has been 
the case for the past 15 or 20 years. 

Lupine hay is cut at different seasons in different years. With the 
majority of stockmen, who depend upon native wet meadows and 
lupine for winter fodder, the time of haj^ing depends largely upon the 
press of other business. It therefore happens that lupine in different 
years is cut at dates which range from the 1st of July to the middle 
of September. 

Naturally the stage of growth will differ according to the time when 
the lupine is cut. If the plant is cut during the first half of July, the 
nearly ripe pods, full of seeds, will be secured in the hay. When the 
lupine is cut at this time, the pods do not open sufficiently in drjdng to 
allow the seed to fall out. In cases where the harvesting of lupine 
hay is postponed until September, the pods become fully ripe and split 
open and the greater number of seeds fall out and are not collected 
with the hay. This is especially apt to be the case if early fall frosts 



LUPINES. 103 

have occurred before the lupine is cut. It may be stated that as a 
general rule lupine is not cut until the latter part of August or the 
first part of September. 

There is a striking variation in the quantity of pods containing 
fully developed seeds in different years. During seasons in which the 
months of Maj^ and June are wet the quantity of pods formed on the 
lupines is very large. When, on the other hand, these months are 
usually dry, only a few pods are found on each plant, the vast majority 
of flowers failing to become fertilized. In a large mountainous State, 
such as Montana, one would naturally expect to find great local differ- 
ences in the amount of rainfall and other climatic features, depending 
partly upon location with reference to the streams, forests, moun- 
tains, and parti}" upon altitude. Corresponding to these differences 
variations are noticed in the quantity of pods formed on the lupines 
in different parts of the State. 

In observing the feeding habits of sheep, one readily notices that 
these animals are especially fond of the pods of various native legumi- 
nous plants. These pods before becoming mature are usually quite 
succulent and possess a sweet, pleasant taste, resembling in many 
instances that of the pods of the cultivated pea. The lupines are 
among the plants which offer pods of this character. In various parts 
of the State it was noticed that sheep had fed extensively upon these 
and the other legumes and that the part eaten was almost exclusively 
the green pods. 

The above observations concerning the native lupines of Montana 
are made for the purpose of indicating the large extent to which they 
are used for forage, and also as a foundation for the discussion of their 
poisonous nature. 

Cases of poisoning. — The first case of poisoning from lupines which 
was brought to our attention occurred in August, 1896. A band of 
sheep while being moved from one range to another was driven 
rapidly, and was consequently in a very hungry condition, when it 
was allowed to feed in a field of lupine for a short time. Within two 
hours after beginning to eat the lupine a number of sheep manifested 
violent symptoms of poisoning, and a few died within one hour after 
the appearance of the first signs of poisoning. Of the 200 sheep in 
the band 100 had died Ijefore the following morning. The season of 
1896 was rather late and at the time when the poisoning occurred the 
lupine pods were fully formed, but the seeds were not quite ripe. In 
this case the sheep were driven away from the lupine as soon as the 
first symptoms of poisoning had been noticed and some of the sheep 
had eaten only small quantities of the plant. About 150 out of the 
200 were affected, and as only 50 of these ultimatel}^ recovered it will 
be seen that the death rate was ver}' high. 

The owner of these sheep during the same season cut a quantity of 



104 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

lupine hay during the second half of Jul}^ In the winter of 1897 a 
band of 150 bucks belonging to the same sheep raiser were kept in a 
covered corral and were fed on cultivated hay. On one afternoon 
during the winter these bucks were given a liberal ciuantity of the 
lupine hay. About three hours after feeding this ha}" a noisy disturb- 
ance was noticed among the sheep. Upon investigation the owner 
found the sheep in a frenzied condition, and during the night about 
90 of them died. No more lupine ha}^ was fed and no more trouble 
was experienced. 

In August, 1898, a horse came under our own observation two 
hours after having eaten a liberal quantity of kipine hay. The horse 
became violently ill with symptoms of lupine poisoning, from which 
it recovered after three days. The history of this case was similar 
to that of 3 2-3^ear-old colts, which, after receiving cultivated hay 
during the greater part of the winter of 1897, were fed on lupine hay 
for two days. All of these died on the second day. 

During October, 1898, serious losses of sheep from lupine poisoning 
occurred in various parts of the State, aggregating about 2,000. 
About 1,150 died out of a single band of 2,500 sheep, and a number 
of large losses from the same cause occurred in other parts of the 
State. These cases occurred just after a snowstorm, while the grass 
and other plants were covered, the sheep being compelled to eat the 
lupine as the only plant which stood above the snow at the time. A 
number of the localities were carefully examined and lupine was 
found to be the most abundant plant excepting the grass. A study 
was made of the stomach contents of poisoned sheep, and in all cases 
lupine was found to be almost the only food material. The stems, 
leaves, pods, and seeds of this plant were identified in the stomach 
contents. The great abundance of pods and seeds was especially 
noticeable. Ordinarily the lupine pods split open and the valves 
become twisted in such a manner that nearlj- all of the seeds fall out 
upon the ground. For some reason an unusually large quantity of 
seeds had this season been retained in the pods until winter. 

During the winter of 1898-99 over 3,600 sheep died from eating 
lupine hay. This number of deaths occurred among about 7,000 
sheep which were affected. The average death rate in investigated 
cases of lupine poisoning is therefore about 50 per cent. In all cases 
where severe losses occurred, the lupine had been cut at a much earlier 
date than usual, the dates given by different sheep men ranging from 
July 1 to Jul}^ 20. During this season the lupines had formed an 
unusual quantity of pods. At the early date at which the hay was cut 
the seeds were fully formed, but the pods were not yet dry enough to 
open and scatter the seeds. 

The most extensive losses of sheep from feeding hay occurred in 
the Judith Basin. In all cases the hay, a part of which had been left 



LUPINES. 105 

unfed, was examined and found to consist almost exclusively of lupine 
{Lu2)i7ius sericeus)^ with full pods containing ripe seeds. At one ranch 
on Sage Creek two tons of lupine hay was fed to a band of 2,000 
sheep, with the result that 700 of these sheep died within a period of 
forty-eight hours. In this case the feeder did not believe at first that 
the lupine was the cause of poisoning. In order, therefore, to show 
the courage of his convictions he tried the experiment of feeding 
about 200 pounds of lupine to 50 sheep from another band. Some of 
these sheep fell dead before finishing their meal, and altogether 28 
died within a period of twenty-four hours. As occasion arose the 
remaining portion of the lupine hay was applied to other purposes. 
A small quantity was used as a covering for a lamb shed in tlie follow- 
ing spring. During a windstorm a part of it was blown off on the 
ground and eaten b}^ a number of rams, 3 of which died. 

At another sheep ranch on Buffalo Creek a band of 2,500 sheep were 
fed lupine hay, and 900 out of this number died within forty-eight 
hours after eating the hay. The remainder of the stack was left 
standing, surrounded by a fence. During December, 1899, the fence 
around the stack became broken down at one point, and another 
herder, while driving a band of sheep by the stack, allowed a part of 
the band to enter the inclosure and eat some of the lupine hay. The 
sheep were soon driven out of the inclosure, but many of them showed 
signs of poisoning, and 100 died. In this case, in the same manner 
as on Sage Creek, a quantit}^ of this hay was used for covering a sheep 
shed, with the result that some of it blew off' and caused the death of 7 
sheep. 

In Deerlodge Valley an old and experienced sheep raiser suffered a 
loss of 700 sheep from eating lupine hay. The owner of these sheep 
had cut lupine hay on the same ground for five or six years, and had 
fed it without any bad consequences. During these years the hay had 
always been cut during the earlier part of September. The material 
which caused the disastrous poisoning just mentioned was cut during 
the first half of July. Only a small part of the lupine which was 
intended for hay was cut at this early date, other work interfering 
with haying, and the remainder was cut in September. That which 
was cut at the earlier date was stacked in a temporar}" manner, and 
that which was cut in September, therefore, came to occupy the upper 
portion of the stack and was naturally the first to be fed to the sheep. 
This hay did not cause any cases of poisoning, but the first feed from 
the hay which was cut in July caused the death of 700 of the sheep. 
From this case it is evident that the poisonous or nonpoisonous nature 
of lupine hay depends partly upon the stage of growth at which it 
is cut. 

A sheep owner near Birdtail Pass had 500 sheep poisoned from eat- 
ing lupine hay, 160 of which died. In this case, as in the previous 



106 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

one, the sheep raiser had had some experience in feeding- lupine hay, 
but had never before had any losses. The lupine was cut in July, at a 
time when the seeds were still contained in the pods. 

The evidence in regard to lupine hay proves conclusively that such 
hay is exceedingly dangerous when cut in full pod, with ripe seeds. 
The experience of a number of sheep men indicates, on the other hand, 
that lupine cut late in the season, after the seeds have fallen out, may be 
fed to sheep with impunity. The case referred to in the Deerlodge 
Valley may be cited as proof of both propositions. Experiences sim- 
ilar to this have been had hj a number of sheep raisers in other parts 
of the State. On Buffalo Creek, in the Judith Basin, a quantit}^ of 
lupine hay growing near that which caused the loss of 900 sheep, 
already referred to, was cut in September of the same year, and was 
fed to sheep without causing any poisoning. 

Instances have alread}'^ been related of sheep poisoning from eating- 
lupine while growing upon the range, and other instances have been 
noted of sheep eating lupine upon the range without becoming poi- 
soned. In these experiences, as in those with lupine hay, the general 
conclusion is indicated that lupine is poisonous only when containing 
ripe seeds. Our observations and experiments show conclusivelv that 
lupines are harmless during the earlier stages, before the pods have 
been formed, and also during the later stages, after the seeds have 
fallen out. Lupine hay cut during the month of July seems to be 
exceedingly dangerous. It would obviously be impossible to state in 
advance the actual dates at which lupines become poisonous, and the 
date in the fall at which they cease to be poisonous. Since, therefore, 
it is practically impossible to define these periods accurately, it would 
seem doubtful wisdom to cut lupine for hay at all, at least where other 
hay can be obtained. 

A few other serious cases of sheep poisoning from eating lupine on 
the range may be briefly described. In one case a few carloads of 
sheep, which were shipped by train, were unloaded near the Mullen 
Tunnel, at an altitude of about 6,000 feet. The shipment was made in 
July, and at the time when the sheep were unloaded they were in a 
ravenousl}^ hungry condition. As lupines constituted the most con- 
spicuous forage material accessible to the sheep, they filled their 
stomachs with them, eating great quantities of the pods. Within a 
few hours a large number of the sheep showed the symptoms of 
poisoning and 400 died. 

During the same month a band of 2,000 sheep was trailed over the 
Birdtail Pass. Lupines grew abundantly in this locality, and the 
sheep fed almost exclusivelj^ on these plants. About 1,000 of these 
exhibited signs of poisoning, and 700 of them died from the effects of 
lupine. 

Perhaps the most disastrous case of sheep poisoning ever known in 



LUPINE8. 107 

Montana occurred on June 28, 1900, about 5 miles west of Livingston. 
Two bands of sheep, each numbering 3,000, were being trailed west- 
ward from Livingston. These sheep had been imported from Oregon 
about a week previous to the time of poisoning, and had ])een allowed 
to graze during this week upon rather short, dry grass in the vicinity 
of the Livingston stock yards. On the day before the sheep were 
started on the trail they were liberally salted. On the first day of the 
drive the sheep traveled about 5 miles, and the two bands were camped 
for the night on opposite sides of a small stream. Both bands of 
sheep were watered in the same stream and at exactly the same place. 
After watering, one band was driven across the creek and camped on 
a bench about 30 feet higher than the stream. The other band was 
camped on the same side of the stream from which it was watered. 
At the time when the herders went to sleep for the night, about 9 
p. m., both bands of sheep were in good condition. On the following 
morning nearly all of the 3,000 sheep which had been driven across 
the creek manifested sj^mptoms of poisoning, and several hundred of 
them were dead. Out of this band 1,900 ultimately died. The greater 
number of deaths occurred on the first day, but the sheep continued to 
die for a period of three days. During this time the sheep had little 
appetite and ate almost nothing. No deaths occurred in the band of 
sheep which was camped on the other side of the stream. 

Malicious poisoning was at once suspected as the cause of this 
unusually heavy loss, A number of persons visited the place where 
the sheep were poisoned and made an examination of the range for 
the purpose of discovering, if possible, any poison which had been 
placed maliciously upon the range. No such poison was to be found, 
although careful examination was made immediately after the poisoning 
occurred. Although suspicions were entertained by a number of per- 
sons against a suspected enemy of the 'owner of the sheep, these sus- 
picions did not rest on any facts which could be supposed to corroborate 
them. 

A careful study of the circumstances of this case disclosed the fol- 
lowing facts: The sheep were driven about -i miles during the previous 
day and ate the plants along the road near the Northern Pacific tracks. 
The plants which grew most abundantly along this course were lupine 
{Lupinus cyaneus) and milk vetch {Astragalus drummondli). The 
sheep ate both these plants extensively. Both were in full pod, and 
the sheep seemed to prefer the pods. It was observed that the pods 
had been stripped off the flowering stems, leaving the rest of the plant 
untouched. Of the Astragalus the sheep ate both the leaves and pods. 
The latter was of a much finer and more delicate nature than the lupine 
in this locality. The lupines were unusually large and woody, attain- 
ing a height of from 2 to 3 feet. The facts thus far noted, however, 
would hardly justify the belief that the quantity of the lupine which 



108 STOCK-POISOlsriNG PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

had been eaten was sufficient to cause the death of so manj^ sheep, 
with a death rate of 63 per cent, nor account for the fact that onlj^ one 
band of sheep was poisoned while the other remained entirely 
unharmed. Yet post-mortem examinations, made on a number of 
sheep, one of which had just died, revealed large quantities of lupine 
pods and seeds in nearly every stomach, and no evidence of any other 
poisonous substance was to be found. The results of the first exami- 
nations were confirmed by a second visit to this locality several daj^s 
later for the purpose of making further examination of the stomach 
contents. Large ninnbers of carcasses still lay on the ground in a 
badly decomposed condition, but it was a comparatively easy matter 
to demonstrate the presence of lupine pods in every stomach. About 
75 sheep were examined for this purpose. The fact that lupine pods 
are exceedingly hard and resist decomposition for weeks, combined 
with their characteristic shape, makes their identification a ver}^ easy 
matter. 

Further facts were developed, however, which furnished a satisfac- 
tory explanation. A large quantity of lupine grew on the side of the 
creek where the band which was poisoned camped for the night, 
while on the other side of the creek where the other band camped no 
lupine was found. The first band was driven across the creek about 
8 o'clock in the evening and grazed for some time l>efore lying down. 
They thus had opportunit}' to eat the lupine which grew on that side 
of the creek, and an examination of this lupine showed that the pods 
had been stripped ofl'. 

The immunity of the second band is explained bj^ the fact that with 
the exception of the first mile of the drive, this band took a course 
different from that of the first band, though parallel with it. No 
lupine grew on the first mile of the drive where both bands followed 
the same course, and it so happened that the course of the second band 
for the rest of the distance led through fields where no lupine was to 
be found. The most abundant plant along this course was Astragalus 
drummondii^ a good forage plant, of which the pods had been eaten 
extensively by the sheep. While the first band of sheep, therefore, 
had opportunity to eat the lupine, not only near its camping ground 
but at several other points along the course of the drive, the second 
band had no opportunity of eating it. At one point in the course of 
the drive, indeed, all the sheep passed through a small area of another 
species of lupine (Z. psmidoparviflorits); but this species had formed 
scarcely any pods and was not eaten by the sheep. 

EXPERIMENT. 

On June 26 two sheep were fed each 150 medium-sized lupine pods 
which were well filled with nearly ripe seeds. The sheep ate the pods 
readily and seemed to manifest a fondness for them. Both sheep 
became frenzied in about forty-five minutes after eating the lupine 



LUPINES. 109 

pods and died about one hour later. The ,s3'mptoms in these two cases 
were the same as those observed above and were of the acute form. 

SYMPTOMS OF POISONING. 

The symptoms of lupine poisoning are tolerably uniform and are so 
well known in Europe that chronic lupine poisoning has been given 
the name lupinosis. Both acute and chronic forms of the disease are 
frequentl}^ referred to by European writers. In the United States, 
however, the chronic form has thus far not been recognized. The 
symptoms observed in cases of lupine poisoning in Montana are prac- 
tically identical with those described b}^ European writers as caused 
by European species of lupines. There is always to be noticed an 
acute cerebral congestion accompanied from the start with great mental 
excitement. During this stage the sheep rush about in different direc- 
tions, butting one another and other objects. In some cases it was 
observed that the sheep ran toward the herder or other persons, but 
there is probably no significance to be attached to such actions. The 
first stage of frenzy is followed by a second stage, characterized by 
pronounced irregularity of movement, violent spasms, and falling fits. 
In the large proportion of cases collapse and death occur within from 
one-half to one and one-half hours. During the attack the pulse is 
strong and irregular. After the animal is no longer able to stand, 
attacks of convulsions follow one another at short intervals. These 
convulsions resemble to some extent those caused by strychnine. 
Universally in lupine poisoning the excretion of the kidneys is much 
increased and sometimes it is bloody. In extensive cases of poisoning 
by lupine it is to be observed that a number of the sheep linger on for 
from two to four da3's. In these lingering cases the symptoms do not 
follow one another so rapidly and do not assume so violent a form. 
After the first day a striking weakness of the pulse and slowness of 
respiration are manifested. 

Post-mortem examinations of the sheep poisoned by lupines revealed 
conditions very similar to those found in the acute cases of loco disease, 
alread}^ described above, with the exception that in loco disease the 
kidneys were not affected. The lungs were slightly congested, but 
this condition was not so pronounced as in cases of larkspur poisoning. 
The cerebral membranes were in all cases congested. In the more 
violent cases small blood vessels had been ruptured in various parts of 
the body, which may have been due either to increase of blood pres- 
sure or to the struggles of the animal. 

REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 

No remedies have been tried in cases of stock poisoning from eating 
American species of lupine, and we can not, therefore, recommend any 
treatment which is based on personal experience with these plants. It 
is possible that liberal doses of a mixture of potassium permanganate 



110 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

and aluminuDi sulphate, given as previously directed, might destroy 
the lupine alkaloids in the stomach and prevent the development of the 
most violent symptoms. It is advisable to administer this remedy, 
especially in cases which are observed immediately after the manifes- 
tation of the first sj^mptoms. The physiological effects of the poison 
may be controlled by the hypodermic use of morphine or other seda- 
tives. In view of the extensive losses caused by eating lupines in a 
ripe condition, both on the range and as hay, it would seem advisable 
to abandon the use of these plants for forage, at least until experi- 
ments have been conducted to determine more accurately the periods 
when such plants are not poisonous. It is certainly dangerous to feed 
lupine hay to sheep, especially if such hay contains seeds in a ripe or 
nearly ripe condition. It is recommended, therefore, that lupines 
should not be cut for hay, if they are to be cut at all, until the pods 
are sufficiently matured to allow the seeds to fall out before the hay is 
stacked. This period will usually fall after the middle of August. In 
case any doubt is entertained concerning lupine hay which has been 
stacked, it is advisable to feed liberal quantities of such hay, from 
different parts of the stack if cut at different times, to 1 or 2 sheep, in 
order to ascertain its true character, before feeding it in a wholesale 
way. 

It has often been observed by stockmen that cattle and horses may 
safely be allowed to eat lupine hay which has been shown to be poison- 
ous to sheep. It is not alwaj^s safe to allow cattle and horses to eat 
such hay, but these animals as a rule avoid the lupine pods and eat only 
the stems and leaves. This is perhaps the only explanation which can 
be suggested at the present time for the observed fact that lupine -hay 
may be harmless to cattle and horses and at the same time poisonous 
to sheep. 



Lupines are extremely abundant throughout the State, especially on 
slopes or foothills and on mountain ranges. 

During the past four or five years certain cases of poisoning in Mon- 
tana and a few other Western States have been vaguely attributed to 
lupines. 

Our observations and experiments showed conclusively that lupines, 
in certain stages of growth, have caused fatal poisoning in sheep. 

Lupines are cut for hay in Montana on an extensive scale, and when 
containing ripe seeds such ha}^ is exceedingly dangerous to stock. If 
used at all it should be used only when it is known to be free from 
ripe or nearl}^ ripe pods. 

No remedy for poisoning by American lupine has been ascertained, 
but the trial of potassium permanganate and aluminum sulphate is 
recommended. 



Bui. 26^ Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XVI. 



Ergot (Claviceps purpurea), in Heads of Wild Rye Grass. 



LERS IMPORTANT SPECIES. Ill 

POISONOUS PLANTS OF LESS IMPORTANCE. 
ERGOT. 

{Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul.) 

Ergot is a parasitic fungus frequently occurring in Montana on a 
variety of grasses, among which the following may be mentioned: 
Four species of wild rye grass (Elymus), three species of meadow 
grass (Poa), six species of couch grass (Agropyron), prairie June 
grass {Koeleria crLstata (L.) Pers.), and reed canary grass {Phalaris 
arundinacea L.). Ergot most frequently infests wild rye grass {Ely- 
mus condensatus Presl) and bluejoint {Agroj)yron spicatwn (Pursh) 
Scribn. & Sm.). The form in which ergot is commonly seen is that of 
a black, straight or slighth^-curved spur from one-fourth to one-half 
inch in length in the fruiting head of the infested grass. (PL XVI). 
Ergot is found throughout the State, wherever wild rye grass or blue- 
joint grows. There are extensive native meadows of bluejoint in the 
State which are annually cut for hay. Bluejoint hay is known to be 
highly nutritious and is greatly valued by stockmen, some of whom 
consider it better than alfalfa, clover, or timothy. Wild rye grass 
grows very abundantly in some locations, but it is not so extensively 
cut for hay as the bluejoint. As is well known, the wild r3^e grass 
has a habit of growing in large bunches, and seldom covers the ground 
completel3^ The ground where it grows is, therefore, rendered some- 
what uneven, and the difficulties of cutting the grass increased. Some 
years the wild rye grass is much worse infested than other years. 
During such seasons the black spurs of ergot are a conspicuous feature 
of the heads of this grass. In ordinary seasons the ergot spurs are 
fully formed by the middle of August and remain in the heads of the 
infested grass until late in autumn. 

Several cases of ergot poisoning came to our notice. In one of 
them a horse, while being driven from Helena to Bozeman, was fed 
on the first night of the trip with wild rye grass hay which was badly 
infested with ergot. On the following day the left hind leg appeared 
somewhat stiff and moist with cold sweat. During the second day the 
leg became badly swollen and gangrene of all the tissues became ap- 
parent. The skin of the leg and a considerable portion of the muscular 
tissues were sloughed off before the death of the animal, which took 
place on the third day. Cases of the ordinary, slow -acting ergotism 
were observed in both cattle and horses. During the season of 1898 
one of us had opportunity of observing several cases of what was 
apparently another form of ergotism in horses. The animals had 
eaten considerable quantities of ergot in bluejoint and wild rye grass 
hay. The symptoms, which will presently be described, were mani- 
fested within twenty-four hours after eating the ergotized hay, and it 



112 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

should be stated that no other conditions were present which could 
account for the sickness and death of these animals. The symptoms 
manifested were the same in all cases. The first sign of poisoning 
which was noticed was fatigue and indisposition to work. Soon 
afterwards a cold sweat was to be observed on parts of the body, par- 
ticularly the neck. A paralytic condition soon began to manifest 
itself, beginning with the tongue and muscles concerned in the act of 
swallowing and becoming rapidl}^ generalized until the whole body 
was involved. In two cases, which were observed from the time of the 
first signs of poisoning until death, the paralysis of the tongue and 
muscles of the throat was noted about two hours after the first symp- 
toms appeared. From this time on the animals were unable to swal- 
low. The paralysis progressed rapidly and death resulted within six 
or eight hours in the two cases. There were no cerebral symptoms 
or mental excitement in these horses. The pulse was at first normal 
but gradually became weaker until it was scarcely distinguishable. 
Respiration was very slow and deep. The horses had a subnormal 
temperature during the greater portion of the time. The remedies 
which were tried in all cases included alcoholic stimulants, blistering 
the throat, and strychnine. Out of six cases treated in this manner 
only two recovered. The experiments indicated that it is practically 
impossible, or even dangerous, to give remedies in such cases by way 
of the mouth, except during the earliest stages, before the paralysis of 
the throat has been developed. In one case a pint of whisky was 
given as a drench, and this stimulant was followed by two one-fourth 
grain doses of strychnine administered hj^podermically. At the time 
when this treatment was given the animal was so badly paralyzed that 
it was unable to stand. The treatment seemed to benefit it tempora- 
rily, and it got upon its feet. After walking about for half an hour 
the paralytic symptoms returned, and the horse again lost control of 
the tongue, gradually also of the sympathetic voluntary muscles, and 
died in an apparently semiconscious condition. 

One of the well-known effects of overdoses of ergot is the produc- 
tion of abortion. In several parts of the State numerous cases of 
abortion have occurred simultaneously or in close connection on the 
same ranch. Some of these outbreaks, especially among horses, have 
proved to be of an infectious nature and the disinfectant treatment 
suitable for this disease was followed by good success. In other 
instances, however, outbreaks of abortion were evidently not due to 
infection, and were not traceable to any cause except the eating of 
ergot in hay. An examination of the hay in such cases disclosed the 
presence of ergot in abundance. 

In -discussing the problem of ergotism with various stockmen it was 
found that in many instances the nature and appearance of ergot was 
not at all understood. A number of stockmen had noticed the spurs of 



Bui, 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XVII. 




Cow Cockle (Vaccaria vaccaria). 



LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 113 

erg"ot in the heads of different grasses, and had come to the conclusion 
that these ergot spurs were the seeds of the grass in question. The 
general experience of stockmen in the State with bluejoint is that this 
grass seldom forms seeds in the native meadows. It was thought, 
therefore, by some that the conspicuous ergot spurs were simply the 
rare examples of its seeds. It would be easy, however, for anyone to 
convince himself that the ergot spurs are not grass seeds. If one of 
them be crushed, it will be found to consist of a black mass which is 
the sclerotium tissue of the fungus, of which the spurs may be called 
the fruit. These spurs are usually about half an inch in length and 
are so conspicuous as to be visible for several yards. It would seem, 
therefore, a simple matter for the stockmen to avoid cutting badly 
infested areas of grass for hay. Fortunately ergot is much rarer on 
bluejoint than on wild rye grass, and since the latter is used only to a 
limited extent for hay, it would not work any particular hardship to 
the stockmen to avoid the use of wild rye grass whenever it is infected 
with ergot. 

It seems possible that the disease of sheep known as "mountain 
itch " may be due to eating grass affected with this fungus and not to 
the mechanical effect of cactus spines, as is thought by some sheep 
men. A more thorough study of ergot may show that it is one of the 
principal sources of loss throughout the State. 

cow COCKLE. 

{Yaccaria vaccaria (L.) Britton.) 

Other names: Cow herb, soap wort, China cockle, spring cockle, 
cockle. 

A smooth much-branched annual 1 to 3 feet high, with mucilaginous 
juice, lance-shaped leaves, and pale red flowers in diffusely branched 
clusters which blossom in May and June (PI. XVII). This species is 
rapidly becoming a noxious weed throughout the State, especially in 
cultivated soil. The plant is of European origin and is gradually 
becoming established in all parts of the United States, the seeds being 
carried in grain and in other ways. 

The cow cockle grows in waste places, in cultivated soil, and on 
sandy hillsides in Montana, specimens having been collected in Lewis 
and Clarke, Cascade, Teton, Sweet Grass, Gallatin, Madison, Yellow- 
stone, Flathead, and Custer counties. This and not the corn cockle 
{Agrostemma githago) is the plant referred to hy the millers of Mon- 
tana when they speak of cockle. From the occurrence of the seed in 
spring wheat, however, it is called spring cockle. This distinguishes 
it from the ordinary corn cockle which occurs sparingly in Montana 
in fall wheat. Under the name of cockle, seeds of this plant were, at 
our request, furnished for identitication by Mr. E. B. Lamme, of the 
S. Doc. 160 8 



114 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

Bozeman Milling- Company. Mr. Lamme stated that it was much 
more easily screened out of wheat than is the true cockle and that the 
amount obtained yearly at his mill was about a ton. The seeds, along 
with an excess of broken grains of wheat, are sometimes sold as screen- 
ings for chicken feed and often thrown away. In gross appearance the 
seed is spherical and much like that of mustard, but nearly twice as 
large. A magnifying glass discloses a regular, finely granulated sur- 
face instead of a smooth one, and on biting the seed it is at once 
observed that its coat is harder and thicker and tlmt the kernel lacks; 
the characteristicalh^ pungent taste of mustard seed. 

A considerable amount of the wheat from Gallatin Valley and the; 
adjacent regions which is milled at Bozeman contains cow cockle seeds.. 
Miss Edna Maynard, a graduate from the botanical department of the- 
Montana Agricultural College, informed us that at Ennis a man who- 
had tried to raise wheat for flour found his wheat was not millable on 
account of its large content of cockle. It is quite probable, however^ 
that in addition the wheat was soft. Mr. Lamme states that the soft 
wheat containing the seed is of no value for milling, but that the seed 
is easily removed from hard wheat. It occurs in barley and oats also^ 
but is easily screened therefrom. 

As a weed, pure and simple, it is getting to be nearly as bad in Mon- 
tana as mustard or charlock {Brassica arvensis), but it does not yet 
crowd wheat out like the latter. Cow cockle has spread with alarm- 
ing rapidity through the Northwest, becoming one of the worst weeds 
of that section. In this way it has undoubtedly grown to be worthy 
of far more consideration from an economic standpoint than it ever 
deserved in Europe or in Asia, Professor Crandall ^ states that it was 
introduced into Colorado for ornament as early as 1874, and that it 
is now sometimes abundant in gardens and among crops throughout 
that State. It is widely disseminated in the fall by the tops of the 
plants being blown about by the wind like tumbleweeds. In his bul- 
letin '^ on noxious weeds, Prof. James Fletcher, of Ottawa, states 
that the cow cockle was first introduced into Manitoba from Europe, 
and that it has spread rapidly over the southern portion of the prov- 
ince and has been detected in man}^ parts of Manitoba and the North- 
west Territories. It was introduced at Bozeman, according to Mr. 
Lamme, about 1885, when the Northern Pacific Railroad was extended 
into the valley. Its distribution in America is given by Britton and 
Brown ^ as from Ontario to British Columbia, south to Florida and 
Louisiana, and in the Rocky Mountains. It has been found also in 
California, and in the West it promises to become more abundant 
wherever it grows. 

1 Colorado Weeds, Bui. 23, Colo. Expt. Sta., p. 8. 1893. 

^ Govt. N. W. Territories, Dept. Agr. Bui. 1, p. 15. 1898. 

MH. Flora of the Northern United States, Canada, etc., vol. 2, p. 18. 1897. 



LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 115 

Very little seems to have been written concerning the action of the 
plant on the animal organism. Nicolai Kruskal ' states that the plant 
contains a poisonous saponinlike substance, but does not state in what 
part of the plant it is to be found or is most abundant. Britton and 
Brown in their Flora state that the name "cow herb" was applied to 
the plant in allusion to its value for forage. Cornevin,^ a French 
authority on poisonous plants, does not include the cow cockle in his 
treatise, but states that animals refuse to touch Sajjonarla officinalis^ 
a very closely related species. Mr. Lamme says that when fed with 
screenings chickens reject the cockle. Miss Maynard corroborates 
this statement, and says that hogs and sheep will eat the screenings, 
but that horses reject the cockle. 

No cases of stock poisoning were reported, but, as the seeds are 
sometimes rejected as food, it was concluded that there must be a 
reason for it. It was thought also that, since the seed has been but 
recently offered to animals in large quantit}^ the toxic effects, as in 
many cases of corn cockle poisoning, inight have been mainly of a 
chronic order and on this account easily overlooked. An investigation 
was therefore started and 119^ grams of the finely ground seed was 
mixed with an equal weight of distilled water, heated for two hours 
at a temperature (60° C.) somewhat less than commonly used for 
scalding, allowed to stand at the ordinary room temperature overnight, 
and then filtered under pressure through a strong linen bag. The 
filtrate was a thick, milk}^ and very frothy fluid, which rapidly dark- 
ened on exposure. It, as well as the residue, had a sharp pungent 
and repulsive odor and taste. On dilution with water it frothed a 
great deal even in very dilute solutions, thus exhibiting one of the 
most characteristic tests of the sapotoxin-like compounds. The froth- 
ing was, indeed, so marked that it was at first impossible in water 
solution to measure off any given amount, but after long standing the 
bubbles disappeared, leaving a clear solution. Only 31 grams of the 
fluid extract was obtained (on June 5) from the 119^ grams of seed. 
This quantity is not, of course, the full proportion of extract from 
the entire quantit}^ of seed, but is equivalent to that from about 31 
grams, the remainder being kept in solution in the water mingled with 
the finely ground seeds. After the filtrate was secured the residue 
was dried and then put to soak with 50 per cent alcohol. 

Experiment 1. — On June 6, 7 grams of the water extract, represent- 
ing approximately 7 grams of seed, was fed at 12.17 p. m. to a white 
rabbit weighing about 3 pounds. At 2.20 the pulse was normal, but 
the respiration was slow and shallow. The rabbit was lying prostrate 
on the ground with the head stretched out so that the throat also was 

^ Ueber einige Saponinsubstanzen, Arbeiten des Pharmakol. Inst., Dorpat, vol. 6, 
p. 7. 1891. 
■^ Les Plantes Veneneuses, p. 262. 1893. 



116 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

resting on the ground. It would move onlj^ when strongly urged to 
do so. 

At 3.12 an additional amount, about 14 grams, of the extract was 
administered. At 3.16 the rabbit was in a very bad condition. Its 
heart was in a constant flutter and it sneezed hard, almost continuously, 
for several minutes. At 4 and 5.30 it was torpid and sleepy, but was 
able to move actively when sufiiciently urged. At 5.40 it ate a few 
mouthf uls of grass. At 9 o'clock the next morning its appetite was 
still poor and its pulse and respiration both higher than normal. It 
could walk a little, but would not do so of its own accord, the stomach 
in particular appearing heavy, and being so much paralyzed and dis- 
tended that it impeded progress. A small amount of exercise, such as 
that involved in walking 5 or 6 feet, caused very rapid breathing. At 
9.20 it had eaten very little. Another violent coughing and sneezing 
spell then came on, causing much uneasiness. On June 8, the rabbit's 
respiration and pulse had greatly improved, but it was still unusually 
stupid. On June 9 it was still somewhat sickly in appearance. , No 
further observations were made. 

Experiment ^. — The residue from which the water extract used in 
experiment 1 was prepared was first dried and then »allowed to stand 
in contact with 50 per cent alcohol for a day or more, after which it 
was filtered under pressure. Twelve cubic centimeters of extract, the 
equivalent of approximately 12 grams of the seed, was filtered off. On 
June 10, li c. c. of this was injected hypodermically into a 32-ounce 
rabbit at 12.50 p. m. The animal was almost immediately attacked 
with a violent spasm, accompanied with rapid breathing and a partial 
paralj'sis of the rear quarters. At 1.45 the paralysis still continued. 
The animal had no desire to move and when compelled to do so its 
hind legs dragged heavily. 

Mr. Irvin Cockrell, who had assisted in the experimental work, con- 
tinued the observations on this rabbit. At 5.5 p. m. on the same day 
the pulse and respiration were much weaker, but regular. The animal 
was unconscious and its body was becoming rigid. At 5.30 it was still 
weaker; the pulse was slow and irregular and the respiration about 
nine times a minute. The body became more and more rigid, and 
even before death, which occurred at 5.40, it was as stiff as animals 
become after death. The pupils were contracted throughout the 
experiment. 

An inspection of these two experiments shows that the toxic sub- 
stance is at least partially soluble in both water and alcohol, that the 
water solution froths upon brisk agitation, and that the physiological 
effect is both immediate and remote, as is the case with the poisonous 
sapotoxin-like bodies found in many poisonous plants such as the seed 
of corn cockle {Agrostemma githago) and the root of bouncing bet 
{Saponaria officinalis). 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr, 



Plate XVIII. 




Swamp Camas (Zygadenus elegans) 



LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 117 

Some animals with sound digestive tracts will accustom themselves 
to feeding on vegetable products containing these compounds, while 
animals of the same kind having ulcerated digestive organs will often 
succumb to them. In using such food stuffs regularly one also runs a 
considerable risk of inducing chronic poisoning, the symptoms of 
which have not been well investigated. Under this influence the stock 
will rapidly decline, or fall off in flesh, the reason not being usually 
apparent to the common observer. 

No antidotes were experimented with. On general grounds, how- 
ever, it would be well to use the permanganate solution if it is proba- 
ble that some of the seeds still remain in the stomach. The applica- 
tion of soda will probably do no good. Oils and demulcent drinks 
should be administered as quickly as possible, but for further treat- 
ment the service of a veterinarian should be obtained. Cow cockle has 
a shallow root and consequently may be easily pulled out of the soil, 
but when it is abundant it should be killed off by summer-fallowing, 
a practice which is often made use of in Montana. 

SWAMP CAMAS. 

{Zygadenus elegans Pursh.) 

This species resembles death camas, but is distinguished from it by 
its taller stature, larger flowers, and wider leaves, which sometimes 
attain the width of a half inch (PI. XVIII). The flowering of death 
camas begins in different years from the 1st to the 15th of May; swamp 
camas blooms about two weeks later. 

The distribution of swamp camas in Montana is less extensive than 
that of death camas, but the plant is extremely abundant in certain 
limited areas. It is found in the Judith Basin, near Grafton, Utica, 
Ubet, and Lewistown. Other localities in the State in which it was 
found were Bozeman, Spanish Creek, Sixteenmile Creek, Helena, 
Mill Creek, Deerlodge, Columbia Falls, and on Shields River. Its 
general range is very wide, extending from New Brunswick to Alaska, 
and south to Vermont, New York, and in the Rocky Mountain region 
to New Mexico. The general appearance of both species of this genus 
varies to a considerable extent, depending upon the amount of mois- 
ture in the soil where they grow. Swamp camas grows in wet mead- 
ows and in much moister localities than those in which death camas is 
ordinarily found. When growing in wet meadows it is usually in full 
seed at the time when the grass is cut. On one sheep ranch a few 
tons of hay had been cut in the fall of 1899 and it was intended to 
feed the hay during the fall and winter. This hay proved on the first 
feeding to be poisonous to sheep and no more of it was fed out. An 
examination of the remaining portion of the hay in the stack showed 
that large quantities of swamp camas were present. No other plant 



118 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

which could be considered poisonous was found in the hay. An 
examination of the meadow showed a simihxr condition there, namely, 
the presence of a considerable quantity of swamp camas, but of no 
other plant of a poisonous nature. It should be observed that this 
species of Zygadenus does not dry up so rapidly as does death camas, 
and being coarser the vegetative portion was conspicuous in the hay. 
This was the only case observed where the plant was suspected of 
poisoning hay. 

On another ranch in a different part of the State six cattle were 
poisoned while feeding in a wet pasture where swamp camas grew in 
abundance, and two of the number died. The symptoms manifested 
by these cattle were as nearly identical with those displayed by sheep 
in cases of poisoning by death camas as the natures of the two ani- 
mals would permit. Postmortem examination of these two animals 
revealed the same anatomical conditions as those found in sheep 
which had died from eating death camas. Larger quantities of swamp 
camas were found in the stomachs of the dead animals. The observa- 
tions thus far made on this species seem to indicate the presence of a 
poisonous principle similar to that found in death camas. 

SHOWY MILKWEED. 

{Asclepias speciosa Torr.) 

A perennial 2 to 5 feet high, with a simple stem, milky juice, large, 
opposite, entire leaves, purplish tlowers in spherical clusters, and large 
pods containing numerous seeds with fine, silky hairs (PI. XIX). The 
plant blossoms in June and July, and is found in wet bottom land and 
along damp railroad embankments at Helena, Ravalli, and various 
points in the Bitter Root Valley, and in Beaver Head, Gallatin, Cho- 
teau, Flathead, and Sweet Grass counties, and along the Yellowstone 
Valley. The general distribution of this species is from Nebraska to 
Arkansas and across the continent westward. 

On June 1 12^ grams of the budding top, including the stem and 
several leaves of the plant, collected May 30, was offered to a small 
rabbit weighing about a pound, which had been deprived of its break- 
fast. All of the material, which had been kept in a closed collecting 
can and was turgid with milky juice, was eaten within a couple of 
hours without any ill effect arising therefrom. Thirty grams more 
was offered in the evening of the same day to the same rabbit. All of 
this, save a small portion of the juicy stem weighing 12 grams, was 
eaten by the next morning. No ill effect having been noted, 92 grams, 
including the whole length of the plant, was offered to the same rabbit 
the next day. The animal, although it had been deprived of its food 
since noon of the preceding day, merely nibbled at the leaves. In 
other ways, also, it exhibited an evident dislike for the plant. After a 
few hours 57 grams of the badly desiccated plant remained uneaten. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agi, 



Plate XIX. 




Showy Milkweed ('Asclepias speciosa\ 



LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 119 

An inspection of the latter showed, however, that about two leaves 
and a small portion of the basal part of the stem was all that had been 
eaten. The apparent loss of 35 grams was therefore almost entirely 
due to desiccation. No ill effect was noted, but the experiment showed 
conclusivel}^ that the plant was objectionable. 

With the hope of obtaining some idea of the symptoms of poison- 
ing, all of the remaining portions of the plants gathered May 30 were 
ground in a sausage mill on June 5, and the olive-green, slightly 
turbid juice expressed therefrom was fed to another rabbit. The 
plant material used had been retained in a tin box, as above mentioned, 
and was still nearly as turgid with milky juice as when fresh. A 
quarter ounce was injected through the mouth into the stomach of a 
vigorous 1-pound rabbit at noon, June 6. After three hours the effect 
exhibited had been so slight that one-half ounce more was given. An 
hour afterwards the animal appeared anxious, and was easily frightened 
and much disinclined to move. The respiration was rapid. The head 
was also throbbing and pulsating in a way which indicated that the 
brain was badl}^ affected by the poison. This throbbing of the head 
continued with nearl}^ total loss of appetite until 5.30. It was still 
apparent the next morning. The respiration and pulse were then 
rapid and the animal was not at all vigorous. Nearly the same condi- 
tions prevailed on June 8 and 9. On June 12 it had recovered its nor- 
mal condition to a great extent and was used for another experiment. 

Twenty-five minims of the expressed juice from plants collected in 
the evening of June 11 were administered hypodermically on June 16 
to a 26-ounce rabbit, but no marked S3^mptoms resulted. 

The woolly-pod milkweed {Asclepias eriocarpa), a plant which, on 
account of the great similarity between the two, is often mistaken for 
the showy milkweed in California, is especially dreaded by California 
sheep men on hot days when they are obliged to drive their flocks 
through barren valleys where there is little water, because the succu- 
lence of the plants tempts the animals to quench their thirst by eating 
them. The remedy employed is to send someone a few days ahead of 
the sheep to cut the plants down. The dried herbage may still be 
poisonous, but the sheep are not tempted to eat it. 

No experiments were made to determine the value of the perman- 
ganate mixture as an antidote, but it could probably be used to great 
advantage. 

CALIFORNIA SWAMP HELLEBORE. 

{Yeratrum californicum Durand.) 

A stout herbaceous simple-stemmed perennial 2 to 7 feet high, with 
a fleshy root 3 to 6 inches long, large plaited leaves of varying 
size, and a large, branched, terminal cluster of many small greenish- 
yellow flowers which bloom in June and July. In Montana the only 



120 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

known localities for this plant are Belt Creek, Little Belt Mountains, 
Bridger Mountains, Bozeman, Deerlodge, and Loto Creek. Outside 
the State the plant grows from Colorado to Wyoming, northern Cali- 
fornia, and Oregon. The root and leaves have been frequently 
reported as having caused death to cattle and horses. Both the com- 
moner Western and Eastern species of Veratrum are known to be 
poisonous. The only doubtful question in connection with the impor- 
tance of this species as a plant poisonous to stock is that of the extent 
to which it is eaten. We have never observed stock eating it, although 
this may frequently happen. The symptoms of poisoning as given by 
stock owners are dizziness, reeling, impaired vision, frothing at the 
mouth, and convulsions. 

The distribution of this plant in Montana is very limited, and for 
this reason it could be easily avoided. Since it grows only on moun- 
tains, it is quite unlike!}' that it will cause sheep poisoning. It is 
altogether too large and coarse for sheep to forage upon at the time 
of year when these animals are allowed on mountain ranges. The 
only animals reported as having been killed by it are horses and 
cattle. As already stated, it is undoubtedly poisonous and it is there- 
fore desirable that stockmen should become acquainted with the appear- 
ance of the plant and its distribution. The species is found most abun- 
dantly on the Smith River slopes of the Big Belt Mountains below the 
Duck Creek Pass. On Belt Creek, near Monarch, and in the Bridger 
Mountains it is also rather common. In all of these localities this 
plant could be exterminated with a moderate amount of labor, digging 
or cutting off below the ground with a spud being perhaps the best 
method. Prevention by this means is the best remedy which can at 
present be offered. No material was obtained for experimental pur- 
poses, as our attention was fully occupied with plants much more easily 
accessible. Experiments were^ however, made with the poisonous 
alkaloid veratrine which, judging from analogy with the common 
swamp hellebore of the East {V. viride Ait.), probably exists in the 
plants, especially in the root. The object of the experiments was not 
to observe the symptoms, but simply to determine whether or not the 
mixture of permanganate of potash and sulphate of aluminum would 
serve as a good chemical antidote. From chemical experiments made 
by Dr. Moore with the permanganate and veratrine chloride, he con- 
cluded that the permanganate would be of no value as an antidote for 
this alkaloid. Test-tube experiments made by ourselves with a 1 per 
cent solution of Merck's sulphate of veratrine and a 1 per cent solution 
of the permanganate with a half per cent solution of the aluminum 
salt showed conclusivel}^ that the mixture acted energetically upon the 
alkaloid. A substantial basis was thus afforded for the institution of 
experiments on animals. Had there been no reaction experiments 
would of course have been out of the question. 



LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 121 

Experiment 1. — On June 2, li mgs. of a solution of Merck's sul- 
phate of veratrine was fed at 3.27 p. m. to a 63-ounce rabbit. No 
pronounced effect was noted up to 4.25, when 7 mgs. more was fed. 
The rabbit died from the effects of this dose in about one minute. 

Experiment 2. — On the same day 7 mgs. of the same solution was 
fed to another rabbit, weighing 26 ounces. Death took place inside of 
two minutes. 

Experiirient 3. — On June 4, 7 mgs. of the same solution of vera- 
trine sulphate was quickly mixed in a test tube with 3 c. c. of the 
permanganate solution noted above, and fed within four minutes to a 
large white rabbit. The weight of this animal was not ascertained, 
but it was not less than 2^ and was probably about 3 pounds. The 
permanganate solution, which has a deep-purple color, was added to 
the veratrine solution, a cubic centimeter at a time. In the first two 
instances the purple color was changed very rapidly, the resulting 
liquid presenting a straw-colored appearance, but the last cubic centi- 
meter was not completely decolorized inside of a minute. No marked 
turbidity was produced. The whole of the mixture was then immedi- 
ately fed, at 3.53 p. m. , to the rabbit. The animal was carefully watched 
until 5 p. m., but appeared to remain in a perfectly normal condition. 
It was also in perfect health on the next day. 

Experiment Jf.. — On June 14, 500 mgs. of an aqueous veratrine sul- 
phate solution was poured, by means of a funnel and a rubber tube, 
directly into the stomach of a 50-pound sheep. This was followed 
almost immediate]}^ by 25 c. c. of a 1 per cent solution of permanga- 
nate of potash with a 1 per cent addition of aluminum sulphate, and 
the whole was washed down into the stomach with 100 or more cubic 
centimeters of pure well water. The time of administration, which 
was begun at 3.44 p. m., did not exceed two minutes. At 4.25 there 
was a slight indication of weakness in the hind legs, but the animal 
could walk as well as usual. This was the only symptom that was 
exhibited. When let out of the pen the next morning it grazed as 
heartily as ever. 

ACONITE. 

{Aconitwn coluinbianum Nutt.) 

An erect, smooth, single-stemmed plant 2 to 5 feet high, with a leaf}^ 
base and a long terminal cluster of blue flowers. The divisions of the 
leaves are broader and less conspicuously separated from one another 
than in the species of larkspur. In Montana the plant grows in Gal- 
latin and Park counties, near the Yellowstone Park and on Lolo Creek. 
The distribution of this plant in the United States outside of Mon- 
tana includes South Dakota, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, Washington, 
Oregon, and California. 



122 STOOK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

The different species of aconite are known to contain poisonous prin- 
ciples, probably more virulent than those contained in their nearest 
relatives — the larkspurs. Fortunately this species has an exceedingly 
limited distribution in Montana, being found, so far as known, only in 
the Bitter Root Mountains near Lolo and the Gallatin Range near the 
Yellowstone Park. Since the altitude of both of these places is high 
and the surrounding country not suitable for grazing, it is not likelj^ 
that the plant will ever become of great importance in stock poisoning. 
Stockmen frequently speak of aconite poisoning, but all specimens of 
supposed aconite which we examined proved to be the tall larkspur. 

PSOEALEA. 

{Psordlea tenuijiora Pursh.) 

A slender, much-branched, hoary perennial, with digitat^l}^ parted 
leaves, white or purplish flowers, and glandular pods. The plant 
resembles the lupines in general habit. This species grows on dry hills 
and plains at Great Falls, Billings, and Livingston. The plant has the 
peculiar and rather agreeable odor characteristic of the dried roots 
of another species of the same genus, P. tnaci'ostackya^ which is used 
to some extent by the Indians of Mendocino County, Cal., as a 
fiber plant. Its general distribution is from Texas to Arizona, north- 
ward to the Missouri River and eastward to Illinois. 

While botanizing at Livingston on May 30 attention was attracted 
to this plant on account of the close resemblance between it in its 
earlier or foliaceous stage of growth and the corresponding stage of 
Malvastrwn coccinemn. It grew plentifully on level pasture lands, 
and although at that time it was fairly succulent, it was left unmolested 
among closely cropped grass, thus suggesting the idea that it was 
probably poisonous. Upon chewing a small portion of a leaf that 
idea was made still more emphatic. The taste was not at all bad, and 
was even pleasant for a few minutes, but later the tongue was consid- 
erably benumbed, a sensation which lasted nearly two hours. 

A quantity of the nonflowering plants 5 to 6 inches in height was 
collected for further investigation, and was preserved in a good turgid 
condition in a tin box until June 6. On June 3 an attempt was made 
to feed the plants to a rabbit, but the animal refused to eat more than 
four leaves, and as that quantity had no pronounced effect the prepa- 
ration of an extract was deemed necessary. The basal portion of the 
stem, rather tough and fibrous, was rejected, but 36.5 grams of the 
fairly crisp growth was obtained, and, after thorough grinding in a 
: sausage mill, was digested li hours at blood heat with an equal weight 
■of distilled water and then filtered through a linen bag, 47 c. c. of 
extract being obtained. For easy calculation, however, this was 
diluted up to 50 c. c. Seven centimeters of this extract, representing 



LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES, 12^ 

5 grams of the green plant, was fed at 12.7 o'clock to a small rabbit 
weighing about 1^ pounds, and as no effect was noted up to 3.2 o'clock 
14 c. c. more was administered. At 4.5 o'clock the rabbit was dejected 
and very uneasy, as was plainly evident from its labored respiration 
and its frightened actions, symptoms which were maintained until after 
5.30 o'clock. At 9 o'clock the next morning the heart action and res- 
piration were still exceedingly weak and rapid, the rate of the latter 
being over 150 a minute. The posterior part of the body was weak, 
being more or less decumbent. The animal was almost too weak to 
move its legs into a comfortable position after the}^ had purposely been 
placed in an awkward way. It would not eat or drink even when 
coaxed. On June 8 the respiration and heart action had improved, 
and it began to eat with relish. On June 9 the appetite had greatly 
improved, so that observations were discontinued, although the func- 
tions of the heart and lungs had not yet become normal. 

TALL CONE FLOWER. 

{Rudheclila laciniata L.) 

This plant is known in Montana as wild sunflower and by other local 
names. The plant attains a height of from 2 to 7 feet, and is usually 
smooth, except for a slight roughness of the margins and upper sur- 
face of the leaves. The root leaves are divided into from 5 to 7 parts 
and those of the lower portion of the stem into 3 to 5 parts, while the 
uppermost leaves are 3-parted. The flower heads are from 2 to 3 
inches across, with yellow drooping rays and a dull yellow disk. The 
plant grows in all parts of Montana in moist places, especially along 
the banks of streams and irrigating ditches. 

In the summer of 1898 a farmer in the Gallatin Valley sheared his 
sheep, numbering about 100, during the first half of June. Soon after 
shearing, a season of cold rainy weather set in and the sheep sought 
shelter during that period. For two or three days they grazed exclu- 
sively in a small area of timber through which ran several streams. 
The tall cone flower was the most conspicuous plant in this area and 
stood about 2 feet high. During the time in question the sheep fed 
almost exclusively upon this plant. On the second day about 20 of 
the sheep showed symptoms of poisoning, and of this number 7 died. 
The symptoms were not observed by us and were very imperfectly 
described by the owner of the sheep. The sheep were at once driven 
away from this locality, with the result that no further case of poison- 
ing occurred. No other plant which could possibly be suspected was 
to be found in the locality where the sheep were poisoned and appear- 
ances pointed strongly to this plant as the cause of the trouble. Speci- 
mens of the plant have also been sent to this Department from Missouri 
with the complaint that it is not infrequently fatal to hogs. 



124 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

HENBANE. 

{Hyoscyamus niger L.) 

A coarse biennial 1 to 2 feet high, with wavy, clasping leaves and 
dull yellow, finely spotted flowers 1 to 2 inches in width, in long, one- 
sided leafy spikes (PI. XX). This plant was found at Bigtimber, 
Mont., but no other locality is known in the State. It has also 
escaped from cultivation in Nova Scotia, Ontario, New York, and 
Michigan. 

The henbane, or black henbane, is the most important and interest- 
ing representative of the potato family found in Montana. The order 
is very feebly represented on account of the high latitude, but this 
coarse, viscid plant, which is a native weed of Europe, has become 
well established in at least one station in the State. Herbarium speci- 
mens were collected at Bigtimber on May 12. Other specimens were 
collected at the same place on June 15. Stock generally shun the 
plant on account of its ill odor and harsh texture, but a few cases of 
poisoning by it are recorded in foreign literature. Inquiry at Bigtim- 
ber revealed the fact that the plant has there proved poisonous to 
chickens which ate the ripe seeds. Ripe seeds were collected in July and 
furnished to this Department by Mr. Roy Spillman. Since the hen- 
bane jdelds an abundance of seed, and since the plant has developed so 
robustly at Bigtimber, it is quite possible that it may spread to other 
localities, if it has not already done so. The plant is a deep-rooted 
perennial and requires vigorous pulling to eradicate it thoroughl3^ 

Experiments with the permanganate mixture and hyoscyamine, the 
characteristic alkaloid of the henbane, seem to indicate that it would 
not serve well as an antidote in case of poisoning caused b}^ the plant. 

BLACK NIGHTSHADE. 

{Sola7ium nigrum L.) 

A smooth, much-branched annual, 1 to 12 inches high, with ovate, 
wavy toothed leaves, white flowers in small clusters on the sides of the 
stem, and black globular berries. The plant blossoms from June to 
August. This species is becoming common in cultivated and waste 
ground in all parts of Montana. It is common throughout the United 
States in similar situations. Very little, if any, damage is to be attrib- 
uted to the plant in Montana. A few cases of poisoning are recorded 
against it elsewhere for calves, sheep, goats, and swine. 

POTATO. 

{Solanum tuberosum L.) 

On a stock ranch in the Flathead Valley 6 pigs died from eating 
uncooked potatoes. The potatoes had all sprouted and were considered 



Bur. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XX. 




Black Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger). 



SUSPECTED SPECIES. 125 

of no value, except for feeding. As soon as it was found that they 
were poisonous in an uncooked condition, the owner of the pigs 
cooked some more potatoes in the same condition and fed them to other 
pigs without causing any poisoning. The symptoms of poisoning by 
this plant were a slowly progressing paralysis, which became complete 
after about twenty-four hours, an increased salivation, and a regurgi- 
tation of the stomach contents. 

SPREADING NIGHTSHADE. 

{Solanum trifiorum Nutt.) 

A smooth prostrate annual with rough, widely branching stems, 7 
to 9 lobed leaves, numerous clusters of small white flowers in groups 
of three, and green berries a half inch in diameter. The appearance 
of the fruit has given the names wild potato and wild tomato to this 
plant. It grows in Madison, Gallatin, Park, and Cascade counties, as 
well as in other isolated localities, on cultivated ground and around 
prairie dog towns. 

The spreading nightshade is native to the Great Plains, and is a com- 
mon garden weed from Arizona to Texas, and through Montana to 
British America. A single complaint of the poisoning of cattle by the 
fruit was sent to this Department from Nebraska, and rabbits inocu- 
lated with the juice of the berries sent from that State were badly 
poisoned. Berries sent to us at Washington by Mr. W. W. Jones, of 
Bozeman, proved to be equally bitter, even after preserving in the 
form of a jam. No experiments were made with the berries or with 
extracts upon animals. In Montana, it is asserted, the fruit under the 
name of ground cherries is pickled with vinegar, and eaten either in 
that state or while still raw. 

PLANTS SUSPECTED OF BEING POISONOUS. 
PRAIKIE FENNELS. 

{Lomatium and Musineon, spp.) 

Several species of Lomatium and one of Musineon grow quite abun- 
dantly on the dry open ranges, and some of these have, perhaps on 
account of their ill odor, been suspected by stockmen of poisoning 
sheep in the early spring. These plants are among the first to appear 
in the spring, and this circumstance, together with the umbels of yel- 
low or white flowers and the general resemblance to other members of 
the parsley family, should serve to identify them in connection with 
the illustrations. We were unable to obtain any evidences in the field 
which would tend to establish the poisonous character of these plants. 
The only native species in these two genera which has thus far been 
proved to be poisonous to stock is L. nudicaule (Pursh) Coult. & Rose, 



126 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

a plant native to Washington. Satisfactory evidence against this plant 
has been given by Prof. C. V. Piper and Mr. G. R. Vasey of the State 
of Washington. So far as known, however, this species does not 
occur in Montana, Several localities were examined where poisoning 
of sheep had occurred in the early spring, but in all of them other 
plants of known poisonous character, especiall}^ death camas, were 
found in abundance. Some of the species of Lomatium which grow 
in other States are known to be edible. It must, therefore, remain 
somewhat doubtful if any of the species which grow upon the ranges 
in Montana were concerned in the cases of sheep poisoning where they 
were suspected, and it appears probable, moreover, that one species, 
Lomatium rnontamim Coult. (feRose (PI. XXI), could easily be improved 
by careful selection and cultivation sufficiently to serve as a staple 
vegetable. 

On June 16 1\ c. c. of a 50-per-cent alcoholic extract of the leaves 
and stems of Lomatium platy car pum (Torr.) Coult. & Rose (PI. XXII), 
representing 1.3 grams of the fresh leaves of nonflowering plants col- 
lected May 28, was injected hj^Derdermically into a 59-ounce rabbit 
without causing anj^ apparent ill effect. Dr. S. B. Nelson has recorded^ 
an experiment made by himself at Pullman, Washington, on a sheep, 
in which the animal ate 4 pounds of Lomatium grayii Coult. & Rose, 
a vile-smelling plant, without causing any noticeable ill effect. This 
species does not occur in Montana. 

MiLsineoii hookeri (Torr. & Gray) Nutt. (PL XXIII) is a plant of 
the same family and has been suspected by stockmen of being poison- 
ous. On May 22 specimens of this plant growing on steep rocky hill- 
side pastures east of Bozeman Creek were observed, the leaves of 
which had been closely cropped. The flowering stem, on the contrary, 
had in all of the several instances noted been untouched. This cir- 
cumstance was at once explained by comparison of the taste of each. 
The leaves had a rather agreeable taste, like that of parsley, while the 
flower stem was disagreeably bitter. The parsley-like taste of the 
leaves, considered together with their parsley-like appearance, sug- 
gests that the plant might easily be mistaken for parsley. The finger- 
like subdivisions of the leaves of the latter and their curly edges suffice 
at once to distinguish them from the former, and, besides, parsley 
seldom, if ever, escapes from cultivation in Montana. 

The plains Cymopterus {Cymopterus acaulis (Pursh) R3'dberg) (PL 
XXIV) also belongs to the carrot family. According to observations 
made near Custer in 1890 by Dr. J. W . Blankinship, the Crow Indians 
hold that its semifleshy root is poisonous. No cases of stock poisoning 
from it have been reported. It has been suspected by some stockmen 
in Montana, being included by them in the general term "wild 
parsnip." 

lU. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bui. 22, p. 14. 1898. 



Bui. 26, Div of Botany, Dept of Agr. 



Plate XXI. 




Prairie Fennel (Lomatium montanum) 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XXII. 




Prairie Fennel (Lomatium platycarpum). 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr, 



Plate XXIII. 




Prairie Fennel (Musineon hookerO. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XXIV. 




Plains Cymopterus (Cymopterus acaulis) 



Bui. 26, Div, of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XXV. 




Mountain False Lupine iThermopsis montanai 



SUSPECTED SPECIES. 127 

FALSE LUPINE. 

{Thermopsis spp.) 

Erect perennial herbs 1 to 3 feet high, with trifoliate leaves and 
bright yellow flowers in terminal racemes (PL XXV). The two spe- 
cies are distinguished by the fact that in the first the pods are curved 
and pendulous, while in the second they are straight and erect, and by 
the further fact that the first species, which is the taller plant, is more 
abundant in dry places, while the second seems to prefer rich, moist 
meadows or the banks of streams. The difference in habitat, how- 
ever, is not without its exception. The yellow pea (as it is commonly 
known in Montana) or prairie false lupine {Thermopsis rhombifolia 
(Nutt.) Richards) occurs along the Yellowi^tone Valley from the east- 
ern border of Montana to Livingston, along the Missouri from its 
head waters to Fort Benton, and in Flathead, Missoula, Ravalli, Lewis 
and Clarke, Beaverhead, Gallatin, and Madison counties. The general 
distribution of these plants is from Colorado to New Mexico, north to 
Washington, and eastward to Nebraska and Dakota. 

The yellow pea has a general distribution throughout Montana. It 
is especially abundant east of the Rocky Mountains, occurring from 
the lowest altitude up to 6,500 feet. In many places it covers the 
ground so completely over large areas as to form conspicuous patches 
of bright yellow at the time when the plant is in bloom. Mention has 
already been made of the fact that sheep were observed feeding upon 
the leaves of this plant without suffering an}^ serious consequences. It 
was observed that a small number of pods were formed on this plant 
during the season of 1900. In some localities it was difficult to find a 
single pod on the plant. Considerable variation in the number of pods 
which mature is frequently observed in the case of a number of native 
species of the pea family. 

On May 9 a serious case of poisoning occurred on a cattle ranch 
near Wibaux. About 150 cattle were affected with symptoms of 
poisoning, and of this number 100 died. A telegram was received 
from the owner of the cattle by Dr. M. E. Knowles, who requested 
one of us to visit the locality with him. Upon arriving at the place it 
was found that the animals had been dead for two days, and post- 
mortem examinations were, under the circumstances, practically value- 
less. One such examination was made with such unsatisfactory results 
that no further work of this sort was attempted. No definite statement 
could be obtained concerning the symptoms manifested by the animals 
before death. In this case, as in many others, malicious poisoning had 
been suspected, and it was suggested that the water had been poisoned. 
Only one dead animal was found near the water, and the others lay 
scattered about the plains at some distance from one another. The 
stomach of the one anirnaj upon which a post-moxtexD examination was 



128 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

made contained what appeared to be the leaf and pods of Thermopsis. 
The progress of decomposition was so far advanced that a positive 
identification of the stomach contents was impossible. All parts of 
this plant are comparatively soft, and therefore soon lose their identity 
in the stomach. 

The range upon which these animals died was remarkably free from 
weeds and poisonous plants, with the single exception of Thermopsis 
rhombifolia. During a drive of 30 miles on this range no other plants 
were seen which had ever been suspected of being poisonous. But 
in the absence of clear postmortem evidence, and without even a 
knowledge of the symptoms, it is impossible to arrive at any positive 
conclusion regarding the case. 

The seeds of the yellow pea are strongly suspected of causing the 
death of children near Winnipeg. 

It can hardly be stated that the mountain false lupine {Thermopsis 
montana Nutt.) (PI. XXV) is considered a poisonous plant in Mon- 
tana; on the contrar}^, it is regarded b}^ stockmen as good hay if cut 
young. Large quantities of the flowering plant, however, were 
observed to be left unmolested in stock yards where stock were stand- 
ing and where there was no other verdure. This fact suggests very 
strongly that the flowering plant, at least, is not edible. It is barely 
possible, also, that a suspected plant described as being gray and 
growing near water at Logan is this species. It grows in ver}^ great 
abundance in wet creek bottoms near that place. It was said that this 
gray plant is especially poisonous after a rain storm. 

A supply of the flowering plants was sent at my request from Tos- 
ton on May 26, and arrived on the 27th, in a slightl}^ wilted condition. 
The leaves regained their freshness, however, after they had been 
sprinkled and had lain in a moist piece of newspaper for a few hours. 
Fifty grams each of the flowering stems, exclusive of leaves, and of 
the leaves and stems, exclusive of flowers and the tough basal portion, 
were deprived of adhering moisture by the use of blotting paper, 
ground separately in a sausage mill, and each soaked for a day in 100 
c. c. of water, after which they were heated a half hour at blood heat 
and then filtered. The taste of the ground leaves was very nauseating 
and much like that of green beans. 

Experiment 1. — On May 31 10 c. c. of the water extract from the 
flowers, equivalent to 5 grams of the fresh material, was fed at 11.42 
to a rabbit the weight of which was not ascertained. From 12 m. to 
1.26 p. m. the symptoms noted were a slight malaise and drowsiness, 
with more or less labored, wheezy breathing. At 3.15 more of the 
extract was offered to the animal, but unfortunatel}^ it was accidentally 
killed in the attempt to feed it. The solution rapidly became moldy 
and was unfit for further experiments. 

Experiment 2. — On June 1 10 c. c. of the leaf extract, equivalent to 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept of Agr. 



Plate XXVI. 




Synthyris (Synthyris rubra). 



SUSPECTED SPECIES. 129 

5 grams of the fresh leaf, was fed at 2.53 p. m. to a 26-oiince rabbit. 
No marked symptoms were noted up to 5 o'clock. The rabbit was 
well and sound the next morning. 

Experiment 5.— On June 5, 20 grams of the fully turgid leaves 
of plants collected on Middle Creek on June 3 was offered at 10.20 
a. m. to a 1-pound rabbit. At 5.5 p. m. it was found that after making 
the proper deduction for evaporation, as determined from a check, 
the amount eaten was but little over 2.8 grams. No ill effect was 
observed. The rabbit was not hungry when the leaves were offered. 

Experiment Jf. — The residue from which the water extract of the 
flowers used in Experiment 1 was obtained remained soaking in 50 per 
cent alcohol until June 12, when it was evaporated down to 20 c. c. 
Half of this was fed at 2.10 p. m. on June 12 to a rabbit. It exhibited 
no acute symptoms during that day and on the following day it was 
perfectly well. 

Exjyerhnent 6. — The residue from which the water extract of the 
leaves used in Experiment 2 was obtained was likewise soaked in 50 
per cent alcohol for the same length of time and then filtered and 
evaporated down to 17 c. c. On June 16, 1\ c. c. of this solution, rep- 
resenting 4.4 grams of the fresh leaves, was injected hypodermically 
into a 25-ounce rabbit without causing any ill effect. 

SYNTHYRIS. 

{Synthyris rubra Benth.) 

An erect simple-stemmed perennial, 3 to 18 inches high, with a 
thick rootstock, long-stemmed basal leaves and small stemless upper 
leaves, and small purplish pink flowers in a dense leafy terminal spike, 
blossoming in earliest spring (PI. XXVI). This plant grows on hills 
and mountain sides throughout the State. The general distribution 
of the species extends from Montana to Utah and westward to Oregon 
and Washington. 

The species is common in loose soil and in turf up to an altitude of 
about Y,500 feet near Bozeman. On May 28 it was found in flower at 
an altitude of about 7,000 feet on Bridger Peak, where specimens were 
collected for investigation and for the photograph here reproduced. 
At lower altitudes it had already passed out of bloom. 

Fifty grams of the whole plant exclusive of the root was ground up 
while still fresh in a sausage mill and soaked for a day with 100 c. c. 
of distilled water, after which it was warmed at blood heat for a half 
hour and then filtered, the residue being put to soak with 100 c. c. of 
50 per cent alcohol. 

Experiment 1. — Ten cubic centimeters of the water extract, equiva- 
lent to 5 grams of the fresh plant, was fed at 11.19 a. m. to a 33-ounce 
S. Doc. 160 9 



130 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

white rabbit. Only a slight uneasiness was noticeable up to about 1 
o'clock, when this feature became strongly marked and was accompa- 
nied with rather heavy breathing. During most of the time from 
1.13 to 2.57 it remained quiet and was very sleepy. At 2.57, 15 c. c. 
more of the extract was given. At 3.30 the drowsiness was strongly 
marked, and at the same time the heart's action was tumultuous, the 
thumping being very conspicuous. At 3.40 there was a curious 
lateral movement of the jaws; the ears and the skin were cold, and the 
heart still rapid. At 3.55 there was much restlessness, but at 4.5 the 
I'abbit was so much easier that it would eat well. At 7. 55 32 c. c. 
more of the extract was administered by mouth in the same way as 
before, and on the next morning the rabbit was found dead. 

Experiment ^. — A second experiment was begun with the same water 
extract on June 6, but in the attempt to feed an ounce to a rabbit it 
died, and as there was not then a sufficient amount of the extract left, 
no other experiments were made with the same solution. 

Experiment 3. — A stable horse to which some of the fresh leaves 
were offered while in the field would not touch them, although 
strongly persuaded to do so. 

Experiment Jf.. — On June 11 fresh material from fruiting plants, the 
leaves of which had a decidedly bitter taste, was collected on Bridger 
Peak and a water extract was made of it on the same day. On June 
14, 200 c. c. of this extract, the equivalent of 155 grams of leaves, was 
fed at 1.15 p. m. to a sheep weighing about 50 pounds, the liquid 
being poured into the stomach by means of a funnel and rubber tube, 
as explained in the introduction. Up to 3 p. m. no particular uneasi- 
ness had been noted, and so the remainder of the extract, the equiva- 
lent of 176 grams of the fresh leaves, was given in the same way. At 
3.25 a slight giddiness was noted, which was accompanied with heavy 
breathing, a disinclination to move, and a weaker heart action. The 
animal remained uneasv during the remainder of the day up to 7.15 
o'clock, but on the next morning it fed heartily and was about as well 
as usual. 
' Experiment 5. — The residue from which the water extract used in 
Experiment 1 was prepared remained in contact with some 50 per cent 
alcohol until June 16, when it was filtered and the filtrate evaporated 
down to 25 c, c. One and one-half cubic centimeters of this, equiva- 
lent to about 3 grams of the fresh leaves, was injected hypodermically 
into a 48-ounce rabbit, but no ill consequence was noted. 

In an experiment made by Dr. S. B. Nelson ^ with the same plant at 
Pullman, Washington, a sheep ate a pound of the plant within a period 
of twentj^-four hours without experiencing any ill effect. 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I. Bui. 22, p. 14. 1898. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XXVll. 




Western Wild Cherry (Prunus demissaK 



SUSPECTED SPECIES. 131 

WESTERN WILD CHERRY. 

{Pruntis demissa (Nutt.) Walp.) 

A shrub or small tree, greatest height about 30 feet and diameter 
li feet, with rather thick, acute leaves, white flowers in terminal 
dense racemes, and dark purple or black, rather sweet, edible fruit. 
(PL XXVII.) This species is rather common in valleys and canyons 
in all parts of the State. The general distribution of the Western wild 
cherry extends from the Dakotas to Nebraska and New Mexico, and 
west to California. 

The first wild cherr}^ blossoms of the season were observed at Logan, 
Montana, on May 17. The bush is most plentiful along the creeks, 
but grows at the base of rocky ledges and in association with juniper 
among granite bowlders in the mountains. A few bushes were noted at 
Logan the crisp, leafy ends of which had been slightly browsed, and as 
cattle were grazing in the immediate vicinity it is to be presumed that 
they ate them. Stock do not often eat cherry leaves, though they eat 
them occasionally; but no cases are on record where stock have been 
poisoned by eating the leaves of any species while still on the tree. 
It is only after they have been cut otf and have partially wilted 
that they are considered dangerous, the reason for this being that 
during the process of wilting prussic acid is formed from nonpoison- 
ous constituents which are always present in the living leaf. This is 
known to be true of wild black cherry {P. serotma)^ choke cherry (P. 
virginiana)^ and wild red cherry {P. pennsylvanica)^ and is probably 
true of the present species, which resembles P. serotina^ the most 
poisonous species, more closely than it does any other species. The 
wilted leaves have the characteristic odor of prussic acid. 

Forty -three grams of crisp leafy shoots, collected May 14 and pre- 
served unwilted in a tin box, were carefully rubbed up in a mortar 
with 200 c. c. of water three hours later, and allowed to stand until 
the next morning when it was filtered. This extract had the charac- 
teristic odor of prussic acid. One cubic centimeter, representing less 
than a half gram of the fresh leaf, was then injected hypodeiTnically 
into a young rabbit, but it was without effect. The extract was too 
dilute to show the characteristic effects. Had a stronger extract been 
made from leaves more thoroughly shredded, it would undoubtedly 
have given the characteristic tests for prussic acid. 

BANEBERRY. 

{Actaea eburnea Rydberg.) 

A smooth perennial, 1 to 2 feet high, with compound leaves repeat- 
edly divided and an elongated raceme. The small white flowers, which 



132 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

bloom in May and June, later produce white ellipsoidal berries con- 
taining about 12 seeds. (PL XXVIll.) The plant is generally dis- 
tributed in the State in moist, shady places. It very closely resembles 
the plant known to botanists as Actaea arguta^ which has commonly 
been mistaken for it, but which may at once be distinguished, when in 
fruit, by its red berries. A. riibra^ which also has red berries, is 
native east of the State. 

No cases of stock poisoning have been reported against this plant, 
and indeed few cases are reported against the similar species which 
are abundant both in the Eastern States and in Europe. Sheep are, 
however, said to l)e poisoned in Europe by eating the white baneberry 
(^4. spicata). The berry is probably the most poisonous part, exclu- 
sive of the root. 

Experiments. — Two weighed portions of the fresh flowering plants, 
exclusive of the flowering heads, were macerated in a mortar with 
definite amounts, respectivelj^, of water and of 50 per cent alcohol, 
both being added by small portions successivel}'. The water extract 
became moldy before it could be used, and was therefore discarded. 
The alcoholic extracts were placed together with the macerated fiber 
and allowed to stand from May 14 to May 25. Forty-four grams of 
the fresh plant were thus extracted with 200 c. c. of alcohol. The 
alcohol from half of this extract was then driven off at the tempera- 
ture of boiling water. To the residue, which was sirupy and ill 
smelling, 50 c. c. of distilled water and 25 c. c. of 95 per cent alcohol 
was added to bring it fully into solution again. Fifteen cubic centi- 
meters of this, an amount representing 4| grams of the fresh plant, 
was then fed with a stomach tube and syringe to a rabbit weighing 28 
ounces. For checking the effect of the alcohol, the same quantity 
was fed in the same dilution to another rabbit having approximately 
the same weight; but although both were strongly affected no pro- 
nounced differences were noted in the symptoms. It is quite possible, 
of course, that any toxic effect that might have had a tendency to 
show itself was counteracted by the comparatively large amount of 
alcohol contained in the extract. A larger dose was not given 
because it was thought inadvisable to give a larger dose of the alcohol. 
The sirupy extract could not, unfortunately, be completely dissolved 
in water, and could not on this account be very easily administered to 
rabbits. On theoretic grounds and from the odor and taste we believe 
that it would prove poisonous. The after taste of the leaves, a few 
of which were chewed, was anything but agreeable, being very bitter 
and nauseating, although at first no bad taste was apparent. After 
drinking water, a sweet taste was noted fifteen to thirty minutes sub- 
sequent to chewing the leaves. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr, 



Plate XXVIU. 




Baneberry (Actaea EBURNEAi. 



SUSPECTED SPECIES. 133 

OAT SMUT. 

{Ustllago avenae (Pers.) Jensen.) 

It frequently happens that where seed oats are untreated the smut 
develops to such an extent that the crop is worthless for grain. 
Usually, however, the crop is harvested at the regular season and 
thrashed for the small quantity of grain which is present. In a case 
of this sort which occurred in the Gallatin Valley during the summer 
of 1898 the crop of oats appeared so badly infested with smut that it 
was cut before becoming matured and stored for hay. During the 
following winter a herd of dairy cows belonging to the owner of the 
hay were fed upon clover and timothy hay until late in winter, when 
orders were given to begin feeding the smutty oat hay. Within 
twelve hours after the first feed one-half of the dairy cows died with 
symptoms of gastritis and cerebral excitement. No more of this hay 
was fed and no further loss of dairy cows was suffered. On post- 
mortem examination it was found that the walls of the stomach were 
much congested, showing a decided irritation. On examination of 
the oat hay it appeared that the oat heads were almost a solid mass of 
smut, having been cut before the smut had blown away. The evi- 
dence against the oat smut as being the cause of the death of these 
animals is considered very strong. 

SPURGES, 

{Ewphorhia spp.) 

Erect, spreading, or prostrate herbs, with milky, acrid juice, and 
opposite or alternate leaves, the upper in whorls and frequently 
colored at the tops. 

All of the numerous spurges native to the United States contain an 
acrid, milky juice which is poisonous, but stock very rarely eat the 
plants, as almost all are rather inconspicuous and would offer but little 
attraction, even if they were not repulsive to the taste. Stock have, 
however, been poisoned by drinking the water into which the leaves 
had been thrown. Six species are accredited to Montana, but none 
have been suspected of being poisonous to stock. They seldom grow 
at an altitude higher than 6,000 feet, and are common, as a rule, only 
in the lower plains region. 

Euj)horhia glyi^tosjpei'ina Engelin. , which is probably the most abun- 
dantly distributed species, is a troublesome garden weed near Custer, 
Mont. It is a smooth plant, with linear-oblong, sharply serrate leaves. 
Its flowers are in leafy clusters on the side of the stem. Eujphorhia 
marginata Pursh, the juice of which is used to some extent in Texas 
to brand cattle, and which has once been suspected of being poisonous 
to cattle, grows on prairie pastures up to about 3,000 feet in Custer, 



134 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

Dawson, and Valle}^ counties and in the Yellowstone Valley. It is a 
smooth, erect plant, 2 to 3 feet high, with ovate leaves, the uppermost 
of which have petal-like margins. The seeds of this plant have proved 
nearly fatal to children who ate a few of them, and the juice is well 
known to be poisonous to the skin of many persons, the effect being 
somewhat like that caused by the oil of the ordinary poison ivy {Bhus 
radicani) of the eastern United States. 

FIELD HORSETAIL. 

{Eqiihetwii arvense L.) 

A rush-like, branching plant, with jointed stems from running root- 
stocks, having sheaths at the joints and, when fertile, terminated by a 
conical, spike-like fructification composed of shield-shaped, stalked 
scales. The fertile stems are from 4 to 10 inches high, the sheaths 8 
to 12 toothed. The sterile stems are slender and produce long, much- 
branched, quadrangular branches. This plant occurs evervwhere in 
moist places across the continent, but is more abundant in the eastern 
part of the country. 

A case of the poisoning of horses by eating the field horsetail was 
reported to the United States Department of Agriculture from Con- 
necticut in 1871, and one of horses and sheep from Vermont in 1899 
and also in 1900. Cases are not, however, at all common in the United 
States and the plant has not been laid under suspicion at all in Mon- 
tana. It grows very commonly around Bozeman. 

Fifty grams of the more foliaceous male plants was gathered on June 
6 and fed at 11 o'clock the same morning to a small rabbit weighing 
somewhat less than a pound, which had been deprived of its breakfast. 
It ate the plant readily and with apparent relish, all of it having dis- 
appeared within four hours. The only symptom of distress noted dur- 
ing the whole day was a decided thirst, which was made evident 
especially at 3 o'clock when, after voiding a copious amount of urine, 
the animal turned around and lapped it up again. The water then 
offered was consumed in unusual quantity. On the next morning a 
peculiar action of the jaws was noted, which seemed to indicate that 
the mouth had been made sore by eating the harsh leaves. Inspection 
of the mouth, however, showed no apparent abrasion. The rabbit was 
otherwise perfectly well, and at 2 p. m. it readily ate some fresh plants 
which were offered. Had the feeding been continued daily as a nearly 
exclusive diet some harm, and possibly fatal results, might have 
followed; for the experiments made in Europe show that a very simi- 
lar species {E. palustre) is fatal to horses when hay contaminated with 
it is fed to them in considerable quantity. The plant, if deleterious, 
is evidently so only on account of its harsh scouring action in the 
mouth and intestinal tract. Meadow hay containing a large amount of 
field horsetail should be fed sparingly. 



SUSPECTED SPECIES. 135 

SNEEZEWEED. 

{Ilelenium montanum Nutt.) 

A smooth, angular, branching perennial 1 to 3 feet high, with lance- 
shaped leaves and numerous conspicuous yellow flowers, which appear 
in autumn. The plant is commonly called sunflower or wild sunflower 
in Montana. This species occurs abundantly in moist grounds in Gal- 
latin, Lewis and Clarke, Madison, Cascade, Choteau, and Missoula 
counties. Its general distribution is from Mississippi and Texas to 
Nebraska, Saskatchewan, and Montana. The closely related Eastern 
species, H. autumnale L., is known to be poisonous to stock, but no 
cases have been reported against II. nnontanum from the State. 

OREGON YEW. 

{Taxus hretufolia Nutt.) 

A tree with leaves resembling those of the red fir. The fertile 
cones are represented by a single ovule, surrounded by a red, thickened 
disk, which becomes fleshy and berry-like. This species is found 
sparingly in Montana, west of the Rocky Mountains, at Columbia 
Falls, Kalispell, Bearmouth, and Lolo. 

The leaves would probably prove fatal if eaten by stock, but inas- 
much as the tree grows in very inaccessible places, there ic little danger 
to be apprehended from it. The leaves and seeds of the European 
yew (T. haccata L.) are well known to be poisonous. 

EAGLE FERN. 

{Pteris aquilina L.) 

The common eagle or bracken fern has a stout, woody rootstock and 
large leaves, 2 to -i feet long by 1 to 3 feet wide, which are 3-divided, 
each branch being pinnately compound. It occurs in woodland at 
Summit, Columbia Falls, Libby, Kalispell, and Missoula, and in the 
Bitter Root and Deerlodge valleys. The distribution of this plant 
includes nearly all of North America. 

Cases of poisoning of horses and cattle by this plant have been 
reported from England and from a few localities in the United States. 
No complaint against it has been sent in to the Department of Agri- 
culture from Montana. 

ARNICA. 

{Ai'nica inonocepliala (L.) Olin.) 

Other names: Mountain tobacco: Arctic leopard's bane; Arctic 
arnica. 

An erect, simple, branching perennial 1 to 2 feet high, with opposite 
leaves and long-stemmed heads of yellow flowers from 1 to 2 inches 



136 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

in diameter (PL XXIX). The leaves are narrowly oblong- or lance- 
shaped, thickish, the upper ones linear. The plant grows in all parts 
of Montana in woodland and moderately moist localities. This species 
is common throughout the Rocky Mountain region. 

This plant, most commonly known as arnica, is one of the most 
common flowers in pasture lands in and about Bozeman in May and in 
the early part of June. It has an odor and taste much like that of the 
oflicial drug, and, in fact, an extract made from the heads is consider- 
ably used locally as a liniment. No specific cases of poisoning caused 
by the plant have been reported from Montana, and we are not aware 
that it is eaten, but it has, nevertheless, been suspected of being poi- 
sonous to stock. 

Dr. S. B. Nelson^ states that a sheep ate 2 pounds (of the leaves ?) 
of A. fulgens within a daj^ without experiencing any bad effect. The 
plants had been gathered eighteen hours. 

ANEMONE. 

[Pulsatilla hirsutissiino (Pursh) Britton.) 

A silky perennial 3 to 10 inches high, with an erect purplish flower 
developed before the leaves, its parts numbering from 5 to 7, the 
leaves 3-parted with the parts further subdivided. The flowers are 
from 2 to 3 inches in diameter when fully opened, and the seeds in the 
fruiting heads bear long silky tails. The flowers appear in earliest 
spring. This plant is one of the most common spring flowers on hill- 
sides in all parts of the State. Its general distribution is from the 
Rocky Mountains eastward to Illinois and Wisconsin. 

Specimens were found in blossom at middle elevations on Bridger 
Peak as late as May 26. The taste of the plant is acrid, and it has been 
suspected of being poisonous by stockmen, but no cases have been 
brought to our attention in which good evidence could be obtained 
against the plant. 

RED WIND FLOWER. 

[Anemone globosa Nutt.) 

Perennial silky herbs 6 to 12 inches high with 2 to 3 parted leaves, 
their divisions linear, and with white, greenish, or red flowers, followed 
by an oblong, silky, fruiting head. The flowers appear in May or 
June. The plant is common In valleys and open woodlands throughout 
the State. The general distribution of the plant includes the northern 
borders of the United States and northward across the continent, and 
also the Rocky Mountain region through Colorado. The stem has a 
very acrid taste, and would undoubtedl}^ prove poisonous if eaten. 
No instances of poisoning are known, and no evidence has been adduced 
to show that stock have eaten the plant. 

i U. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bui. 22, p. 13. 1898. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr, 



Plate XXIX. 




Arnica i Arnica monocephala). 



SUSPECTED SPECIES. 137 

DOGBANE. 

{Apocynum spp.) 

Pale smooth perennials, 1 to 5 feet high, with tough fiber, opposite 
sharp-pointed leaves, small white or rose-colored flowers in terminal 
clusters, and pods 2 to 7 inches long. Two species of dogbane grow 
in Montana, both flowering in similar situations from May to June. 
Their preferred habitat is in waste places, along public highways, and 
on banks. The two species seldom grow together. They may be 
distinguished by the rose-colored flowers of the one species and by the 
greenish white flowers of the other. Both species are generally dis- 
tributed across the continent. Dr. J. W. Blankinship states that 
Apocynum androsaemifoUura L. is ver}^ common on dry hillsides in 
Montana. On June 11 the crisp, reddish brown plants of this species 
were but 3 to 5 inches high, but they were abundantly supplied with 
an acrid milky juice. On Juue 17, at lower elevations eastward, the 
plants were seen in railroad excavations in a much more advanced 
stage of growth. This plant, as well as A. ccmnahimwi 1j., is poison- 
ous. Both have tough stems and are not therefore enticing to stock, 
especially since wholesome vegetation is abundant at the season when 
they are in a crisp and succulent condition. Both have, however, been 
suspected by stockmen of being poisonous. The dried plants are not 
so poisonous as the fresh ones. 

SHOWY FRASERA. 

{Frasera speciosa Dougl.) 

A large, stout leafy herb 2 to 5 feet high, with a single erect stem 
from a thick bitter root and numerous greenish white, dark-dotted 
flowers in a long leafy cluster. The root leaves' are from 6 to 10 inches 
long, and the stem leaves are arranged in whorls of 4 to 6. The- plant 
is found in Montana on dry hillsides in the Judith Basin and on the 
Belt, Bridger, Absaroka, Rocky, and Bitter Root mountains. The 
general distribution is from Wyoming to Oregon and southward to 
New Mexico and California. 

Four plants 6 inches in height and without any sign of a flowering 
stalk, were collected in Rocky Canyon on May 26 by Dr. J. W. Blank- 
inship and delivered at the laboratorv in a fresh condition on May 28. 
Thirtj'^-one grams were roughly torn into small pieces and rubbed up 
vigorously in a mortar with 50 c. c. of water. The water extract was 
lost, but the residue was allowed to soak in 50 c. c. of 50 per cent alco- 
hol from May 29 to June 16, when the filtrate therefrom was given 
hypodermically to a healthy young rabbit. Previous to this the solu- 
tion had been evaporated on a water bath down to 7 c. c, most of the 
alcohol being thus expelled. One and one-half cubic centimeters of 



138 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

this evaporated extract, representing 4.4 grams of the fresh plant, was 
injected under the skin of a 41^ ounce rabbit witliout causing an}^ 
marked symptoms. No further opportunity for securing a supply of 
the plants was offered. The species is abundant in the Yellowstone 
Park. 

A similar species, F. alhicaulis, which grows in the State of Wash- 
ington, was fed by Dr. S. B, Nelson^ to a sheep without causing any 
noticeably bad effects. In all Ti pounds was given in the course of 
five days, but no more than about 2|^ pounds was eaten within any 
twelve hours of that period. 

SNOWBERRT. 

{Symj)hoTicarj)Oi< occidcmtalis Hook.) 

A low-branching erect shrub from 2 to 4 feet high, with small entire 
leaves and small white or pinkish flowers which are densely covered 
with long silky hairs. The plant blossoms in June. This shrub, 
called "buck brush" in many parts of the State, is known to be a good 
honey-producing plant. Snowberry grows abundantly in nearl}^ all 
parts of the State, being especially abundant in the neighborhood of 
Flathead Lake, where it is occasionally grazed upon by cattle and 
horses. The general distribution of this species is from the mountains 
of Colorado to Montana and eastward. As a rule, however, the leaves 
of the snowberry are objectionable to stock and are rarely eaten by 
them. The berries have, according to Irvin Cockrell, been suspected 
of poisoning stock in winter. 

The taste of the leaves taken directly from the bush on June 6 was 
not bad at first, but on prolonged chewing became disagreeably bitter. 
Six rabbits refused to touch the leaves, but the seventh, which was 
quite hungry, did venture to eat 1\ leaves. It would not eat more. 
No bad effect followed. The data in hand are not sufficient to condemn 
the shrub. 

SLENDER NETTLE. 

( Urtica gracilis Ait.) 

A smooth-stemmed perennial from 1 to 4 feet high, with stinging 
hairs, lance-shaped leaves, and loose clusters of small greenish flowers, 
which blossom in June and July. This species grows in Montana in 
waste places in Gallatin, Meagher, Park, Madison, Lewis and Clarke, 
Cascade, Flathead, and Missoula counties. The general distribution 
of the plant includes the Rocky Mountains from California northward 
and thence eastward across the country. 

The slender nettle is abundant in waste land and along creeks near 
Bozeman, but is not looked upon as in any way objectionable to stock. 



1 U. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bui. 22, p. 13. 1898. 



SUSPECTED SPECIES. 139 

Hundreds of acres of reclaimed swamp land in Michigan and Wiscon- 
sin have, however, been made worthless by the dense growth, horses 
refusing to pass through it to cultivate the soil. The stinging hairs 
of a closely related species, U. holosericea were the cause of the death 
of several horses in California in April, 1900. 

LYGODESMIA, 

{LygodesTThia juncea Don.) 

A smooth erect perennial, 4 to 12 inches high, with rush-like 
rigid, much-branched stems, linear or scale-like leaves, and scattered 
heads of pink or rose colored flowers. This species, sometimes 
known as prairie pink, grows abundantly on dr^^ prairies and plains 
in Park, Sweet Grass, Gallatin, Meagher, Lewis and Clarke, Choteau, 
and Teton counties. The general distribution of the plant is from 
Minnesota to New Mexico and Nevada. It has been suspected by 
stockmen both in Montana and Utah of being poisonous to stock. 
The plant was not investigated, but it was ascertained that the milky 
orange-colored juice of nonflowering plants gathered at Toston was 
extremely bitter and disagreeable to the taste. 

BLACK GREASEWOOD. 

{Sarcohatus vermicxilatus (Hook.) Torr.) 

A rigid, much-branched, erect, and scraggy shrub, 2 to 8 feet high, 
with linear leaves and smooth white bark upon the branches. This 
plant is found in alkaline soil near the head waters of the Missouri 
and Yellowstone, at Great Falls, and along Belt Creek. It is distrib- 
uted from western Nebraska to Wyoming and Nevada and to New 
Mexico. 

This plant grows in strongly alkaline soil, and is as a rule abundant 
wherever it occurs. No complaint of the plant being deleterious to 
stock in any way has been sent in to the Department of Agriculture 
from Montana. A correspondent in New Mexico states, however, 
that on one occasion he counted as many as 1,000 sheep that had been 
killed by eating the leaves of this plant. He claimed that cows are 
not affected by eating it at any time and that sheep can eat it freely in 
winter. Fatalities caused by eating the plant may perhaps be due 
more to the bloating effect than to any poisonous substances which 
the plant contains. 

ERIOGONUM. 

{Eriogonum spp.) 

Plants with acid juice, alternate entire leaves, stems from 3 to 10 
inches high, and small, delicate flowers of a white or yellow color. 



140 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

One of the most common species, E. fiamuin Nutt., yellow eriogonum, 
is woolly throughout and has yellow, silk}^ flowers, which blossom from 
May to July (PI. XXX). These plants are found everywhere through- 
out the State on dry ranges, especially in poor soil. 

On June 11 the yellow eriogonum, with scanty foliage, was observed 
in bud at an altitude of about 7,000 feet on Bridger Peak. It was 
not at all plentiful and there was an abundance of good pasturage at 
hand. An investigation of the plant was deemed much less important 
than of several others which had been suspected more strongly, and 
no experiments were attempted. Dr. S. B. Nelson^ fed 3i pounds of 
E. heracleoides to a sheep within one day without any ill eflfect. 

SCARLET GAURA. 

{Gaura coccinea Pursh.) 

A nearly smooth herb, 6 to 12 inches high, with numerous narrow 
leaves and rose-colored or scarlet flowers in simple spikes (PI. XXXI). 
The plant is common throughout the State on dry plains, blooming in 
May and June. The general distribution of this species is from 
Montana to Colorado and eastward to Arkansas. 

Eiqjeriment 1. — On June 3, 32 grams of this plant collected at 
Livingston, May 30, about a week before the flowering time, was 
offered, still fresh, to a li-pound rabbit. The whole quantity was 
eaten up clean within five hours, but no ill effect was subsequently 
noted. 

Experiment 2. — On June 4 50 grams of the plants collected at 
Bozeman in the same stage of growth as before was fed within an 
hour after gathering to the above rabbit. In this case the herbage 
was eaten very slowly and without relish. A check experiment 
showed that three and a half hours afterwards only 20 grams had 
been consumed. There were no ill consequences. 

Experiment 3. — On June 9 25 grams of rather succulent leaves 
from nonflowering plants nearly in bloom were eaten by a f -pound 
rabbit. The same animal had eaten a small amount of lupine leaves 
and seemed to be unwell prior to both experiments. It showed no 
additional symptoms of uneasiness after eating the leaves. 

Experiment J^.. — On June 10 a stable horse entirely refused to eat 
the plant either in the flowering or nonflowering stage. 

TOWNSENDIA. 

{Townsendia 'parry iJy. C. Eaton.) 

A low, erect, several-stemmed perennial, 2 to 6 inches high, with 
hairy stems, small stemless leaves having entire margins, and large 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bui. 22, p. 14. 1898. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XXX. 



^h»:^^ 



^r^y 







Yellow Eriogonum 'Eriogonum flavumi 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr 



Plate XXXI. 




Scarlet Gaura iGaura coccinea^. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Depf. of Agr, 



Plate XXXII. 




PlNK-FLOWERED WiLD ONION (ALLIUM BREVISTYLU M i. 



WRONGLY SUSPECTED SPECIES. 141 

showy l)liie or white Howers, which appear in early spi-injj^. It is coiii- 
moii on dr}' hillsides up to an altitude of about 8,<>(><» feet. 

It is one of the many plants which, perhaps, on account of its bitter 
taste, has been suspected in Montana of killing- stock. No concrete 
cases have been reported to the Department against it. The fresh 
leaves from flowering plants gathered June 9 tasted a- little like sun- 
flower seed when first chewed, but after a minute or tw'o it became 
bitter and disagreeable. Ka])bits refused to eat the leaves when fresh. 
An inspection of plants in the field revealed but one or two which 
showed signs of having been grazed upon. 

EDIBLE PLANTS WHICH HAVE BEEN SUSPECTED OF BEING 

POISONOUS. 

WILD ONION. 

{Allium spp.) 

otrong-scented stemless herbs with linear leaves and a flowering 
stalk rising from a coated bulb. The plants attain the height of 
from 3 to 20 inches, and the flowers are borne in flat-topped clusters. 
The odor of the plant and the shape of the flowering cluster should at 
once distinguish it from death camas, with which it seems to have been 
confused by some stockmen. The species of wild onion are generally 
distributed throughout Montana and grow in much drier situations 
than does the death camas. The taste of the pink-flowered wild onion 
(A. hrevistylum S. Wats.) (PI. XXXII) does not difier materially from 
that of the ordinary onion, but may perhaps be somewhat stronger. 
It is claimed to be more pungent than the white-flowered species (^1. 
reticulatum Fraser), which grows in great abundance in open grassy 
fields and which has a larger bulb. 

The white-flowered wild onion was in blossom on May 23 on the 
slope leading up to the bench land from the east side of Bozeman 
Creek. On June 11 the pink-flowered species was in bloom on the 
north slope of Bridger Peak at an altitude of about 6,000 feet. For a 
number of years complaints had been made of the poisonous action of 
wild onion, which was suspected of causing the death of sheep in a 
lumiber of instances. We were unable, however, to obtain any 
evidence against any of the species, and could not understand why the 
plant should be susp3cted. But during the present season it was 
found that a considerable number of stockmen applied the name wild 
onion to death camas without distinguishing between the two species. 
Apparently this confusion of names accounts for the suspicion that 
has attached to the wild onion. It is not believed that the species of 
wild onion have any injurious effect upon animals except to taint the 
meat and the milk with a disag-reeable flavor. A few residents of 



142 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

Montana claim that, while the white-flowered wild onion is not poison- 
ous, the pink-flowered is so, an idea which may be due to the fact that 
the latter species is not nearly so well known as the white, and is more 
easily confused with poison camas, which has a somewhat similar bulb. 
One of our assistants, indeed, ate a considerable portion of a poison 
camas bulb before he was convinced that it was not an onion. 

At 2 p. m., June 12, a Belgian hare, which had his food withheld 
since the preceding night, received 50 grams of the whole flowering 
plant of A. h'evistyhim. This was eaten somewhat gingerly, but at 8 
o'clock, applying the correction for loss of weight due to evaporation 
of water, it was found that 48^ grams, nearly the whole amount, had 
been eaten. No ill effect was noted, and the same rabbit readily ate a 
few grams of the fresh onion the next day. 

WILD LICORICE. 

{Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh.) 

An erect perennial half-woody herb, 1 to 4 feet high, with a thick, 
sweet root, slightly hairy pinnate leaves, yellowish-white flowers in 
dense spikes on the sides of the stem, and pods thickly covered with 
hooked prickles. The plant is generally distributed throughout the 
State along river banks and in moist, shady places. During the 
season of 1900 it was observed in abundance in Cascade, Flathead, 
Choteau, Lewis and Clarke, Meagher, Gallatin, Missoula, and Park 
counties. The general distribution is from Montana to New Mexico 
and westward to Nevada and California. The plant is quite commonly 
known to stockmen of the State by the name of licorice. The pods 
frequently become entang^led in the wool of sheep and the hair of 
cattle. The leaves and stems of the wild licorice are freely eaten by 
cattle and horses on the range, but not by sheep so far as commonly 
observed. In many localities it grows so abundantly that stockmen 
have cut it for hay. Obviously the crop must be cut before the burs 
are formed, since these structures would render it almost impossible 
for stock to eat the ha3^ A few inquiries have been received in regard 
to the possible poisonous nature of the plant. There seems to be no 
reason for suspecting it, since large quantities of wild licorice have 
been eaten as hay, and direct feeding experiments with sheep and 
calves indicate that the plant is entirely harmless. 

On June 3, 68 grams of the crisper upper portion of nonflowering 
plants collected along the banks of the Yellowstone and Livingston on 
May 30 was offered in a good turgid condition to a hungry rabbit. It 
was thought that the disagreeably bitter and astringent taste of the 
plant would cause the rabbit to shun it, but five hours afterwards it was 
found that about 18 grams had been eaten. No marked symptoms 
were presented, and the animal was in good condition the next day. 



Bui. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XXXIll 





Wild Hyacinth iLeucocrinum montanum). 



WK()N(4LY SITSI'P:CTED SPECIES. 143 

WILD HYACINTH. 

{Leucocrinum montanum Nutt.) 

A low stemless perennial, with a tuft of rather thick linear leaves, 
thick tuberous roots, and 4 to 8 pure white fragrant flowers, with a 
slender tube 1 to 2 inches long, which rises from below the surface of 
the ground (PI. XXXIII). The flowers appear in early spring. The 
plant grows abundantly in dry, gravelly soil in the Yellowstone Valley, 
Judith Bas'n, and Gallatin Valley near Belgrade. It is found plenti- 
fully from Livingston to Big Timber, and especially north of these 
points to the JNIusselshell River. Outside of Montana the plant grows 
from Montana to Northern California. 

It is supposed in Montana that this plant is poisonous to sheep aftei- 
the fruit has been developed. No authentic cases have been investi- 
gated, and since the seed capsules are underground it appears very 
doubtful if the}^ are ever eaten by stock. The plant blossoms early in 
May and the leaves Avy up generally before the last of May. The 
roots consist of semi-fleshj^ fibers which can not be readily pulled up. 
Dr. Blankinship, who in 1890 made an investigation of the plants used 
by the Crows, stated that this tribe of Indians ate the roots. The taste 
of partially dried herbarium specimens is rather agreeable. No defi- 
nite evidence whatever could be obtained which would connect tnis 
plant with an}' case of stock poisoning. 

cow PARSXIP. 

{Ileracleum lanatwn Michx.) 

A coarse, strong-scented, woolly perennial 4 to 9 feet high^ with 
decompound leaves and somewhat heart-shaped leaflets. Flowers 
white, in large flat-topped clusters. This plant is sometimes called 
wild parsnip, but may be readily distinguished from that plant by its 
much greater size and coarser character. It is common in situations 
similar to that in which the poison hemlock grows. In 1900 it was 
found in Gallatin. Park, Carbon, Sweet Grass, Meagher, Choteau, Cas- 
cade, T' +on, Flathead, Lewis and Clarke, and Missoula counties. The 
genei . iistribution of this species is from Colorado to British America 
and to the Atlantic; also in California. 

The plant was first observed to be well in ))loom at Bozeman on 
June 26. It is especiall}- abundant and luxui'iant in level swampy 
land among willows, but it grows well among shrubbery along creeks 
everywhere throughout ^Montana. Fifty grams of the succulent leafy 
noDllowering tops, collected on June 6, was fed on the same morning 
to a small yellow rabbit weighing about \\ pounds. All of this amount 
was readily eaten with the exception of a small part of a leaf, which 
finally became very badly wilted, and a fragment of a flower cluster 



144 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

which was in bud. The succulent stem was especially well liked. At 
the end of seven hours it was calculated that 36 grams had been eaten. 
No bad results followed, but the animal was at times a little more 
drowsy than several others were. It was in good condition on the 
following morning. 

The succulent stem of this plant is greatl}^ relished before flowering 
time by the Indians of Round Valley, California. Before eating it, 
however, the more pungent skin is removed. The taste is then agree- 
ably aromatic. 

FALSE MALLOW. 

{Malvastrurii coccineum, A. Gray.) 

A tufted hoary perennial, 2 to 8 inches high, with numerous 5-parted 
leaves and racemes of showy brick-red flowers, which blossom in May 
and June (PI. VI). This plant is very abundant on dry prairies, espe- 
cially on poor soil, near Craig, Augusta, Choteau, Great Falls, Fort 
Benton, Utica, Lewiston, Martinsdale, Helena, Bozeman, and Living- 
ston. The species grows on plains from Colorado to British America 
and eastward to Iowa and Minnesota. 

The plant is not well in blossom near Bozeman until after the first 
of June. It is extremely abundant on some drj' hillside pastures 
which are much used for grazing sheep, where, before flowering, the 
leaves may easily be mistaken for those of the purple larkspur. The 
latter, however, may at once be distinguished by the absence of 
stellate hairs. 

The plant was at one time suspected in another State of being the 
cause of a certain case of poisoning, but the accusation was after- 
wards retracted, although the cause of death was never established. 
The leaves have no bad taste, but they are so densely covered with 
minute star-shaped clusters of rather rigid hairs that it seems possible 
that they might cause some physical ill efl'ect on the digestive tract. 
The hairs are not without effect on the tongue when the leaves are 
chewed, and the fresh nonflowering plants were wholly rejected by a 
stable horse, to which they were offered. As a matter of fact, how- 
ever, the plant, although it does not appear attractive as forage, is 
eaten extensively by sheep in several parts of the State. On a sheep 
range near Craig there are large areas which are occupied exclusively 
by the false mallow. It was noticed that sheep had a decided liking 
for the plant, and grazed upon such areas as long as any of this plant 
could be found. Similar conditionis were observed in other parts of 
the State. A number of sheep raisers have noticed sheep eating this 
plant, and have, in one or tWo instances, suspected it of being poison- 
ous. These suspicions are probably unfounded, since, as already indi- 
cated, the plant is eaten extensively by sheep in some localities without 
untoward results. 



WRONGLY SUSPECTED SPECIES. 145 

SAGEBRUSH. 

{Artemisia spp.) 

Bitter aromatic herbs or shrubs, with narrrow alternate leaves and 
small yellowish or greenish flowers in terminal clusters. The species 
are somewhat hairy throughout. About 20 species of sagebrush 
grow in difl'erent parts of Montana, and some of them are recognized 
by stockmen as valuable forage plants for the late fall and Avinter 
grazing. 

Various species are suspected in Montana of being poisonous to 
stock, but no specitic cases have been reported to the Department. 
At Toston in May, 1900, it was noticed that the terminal branchlets 
of A. tridentata had all been eaten off from a considerable number of 
plants. 

SMALL-LEAVED CUDWEED. 

{Antennaria jxirvi folia Nutt.) 

The small, silky, curly-leaved cudweed, about 6 inches high, which 
grows abundantly in small patches on open hillside pastures, was 
eaten voluntarily and with considerable relish by a horse. Dr. S. P. 
Nelson^ states that he fed three pounds of A. luzuloides to a sheep 
inside of 24 hours without causing any ill effect. 

WILD CARAWAY. 

{Carum gairdm£ri (Hook. & Arn.) A. Gray.) 

A smooth, erect biennial, 1 to 4 feet high, with tuberous or turnip- 
shaped root, 3-parted leaves, and white flowers in flat-topped clusters. 
The plant is common in meadows and on hillsides throughout the 
State. The general distribution is from Washington and California to 
Idaho and Wyoming. 

This species of wild caraway has been suspected of being poisonous 
to stock, but this is undoubtedly a mistake, for, according to our own 
observations, the roots under the erroneous name of wild parsnii) are 
very frequently eaten in the raw state by boys, while according to 
Coulter, Rydberg, and others it is an article of food among the Indians. 
Coulter^ states that " under the name of ' yamp' the root is a common 
article of food among the Indians of Idaho and Wyoming."' He fur- 
ther states that "it is very palatable and nutritious, having somewhat 
the flavor of carrot." 

'U. S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I., Bui. 22, p. L3. 1898. 

* Sixth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Surv. of the Territories, p. 767. 1873. 

S. Doc. 100 10 



146 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

EEED CANARY GRASS. 

{Phalaris arundinacea L.) 

A perennial reed-like grass, 2 to 4 feet high, with broad flat leaves, 
3 to 10 inches long, and flowering heads in large terminal panicles. 
This species is very common in wet meadows and sloughs throughout 
the State and is an important element of wild ha3^ It is found from 
Nova Scotia to British Columbia, south to New Jersey, Kentucky, 
Kansas, and Nevada. Prof. J. M. Coulter^ quoting from Watson, sa3^s 
that " it is known as ' craz}^ grass' from its reputed injurious efi^ect 
upon horses." Although coarse in texture it is considered harmless 
by the Minnesota agricultural station and by the Division of Agros- 
tology of this Department. Our observations show that it is some- 
times infested by ergot. This fungus is therefore most probably 
responsible for any ill eflfects which have been attributed to the grass. 

WILD SUNFLOWER. 

{BalmmorJiiza sagittata Nutt.) 

A perennial with thick balsamic roots, tufted, long, hairj^ root leaves, 
and simple, few-flowered, flowering stems 1 to 2 feet high, bearing 
usually solitary flower heads from 2 to 5 inches in diameter (PI. 
XXXIV). The flowers appear in May and are among the most con- 
spicuous of the season. This plant grows on dry hillsides in all parts 
of the State. 

The dry rocky hillsides and shallow coulees, at an altitude of from 
about 5,000 to 7,000 feet, near Bozeman were yellow with the showy 
blossoms of this plant from the middle of May to nearly the middle of 
June. It is the most conspicuous of all the herbaceous plants at those 
altitudes, and is often seen in association with death camas, white 
lupine, and blue larkspur. The plant is generally distributed in the 
Eocky Mountains from Colorado through Montana to British Colum- 
bia. Close inspection of many growing plants during May and the 
first half of June in the Gallatin Valley failed to reveal any signs of 
its having been grazed upon, although another plant, the low milk 
vetch ( OTO])haca caespitosa) ^ which was named to us as a suspect, 
had been closely grazed in close proximit3^ A single leaf was fed out 
of hand to a stable horse four or five times, but the animal finally 
refused to eat any more, although it was strongly urged to do so. 
Even at first it ate none at all when purposely grazed with its nose 
close to the bunches. The wild sunflower is eaten on the range in other' 
parts of the State by cattle and horses, and less extensively by sheep. 
On the summer ranges in the foothills and on the mountains, sheep eat 

1 Sixth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Surv., vol. 6, p. 787. 1873. ^See p. 148. 



Bui. 26, DIv. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XXXIV. 




Wild Sunflower < Balsamorhiza sagittataV 



WRONGLY SUSPECTED SPECIES. 147 

the loaves of this plant with considerable relish, but at other times of 
the year thej^ seldom touch it. The habits of horses and cattle in 
regard to it varj^ according to the individual animal, some eating it 
greedil}' and others passing it by. It is doubtful if its forage value is 
equal to that of some of the native legumes, but it occurs so abundantly 
throughout such a wide range that it must be considered of some eco- 
nomic importapce. Large quantities of the plant were fed to horses 
and sheep without producing an}' bad effects, and animals were 
observed eating it freely on the ranges at different seasons of the 
year. 

In two feeding experiments with rabbits 20 to 26 grams, respectivel}', 
out of 50 grams of the fresh leaves of the flowering plant offered were 
eaten without any apparent ill effect b}' two hungry 1^-pound rabbits 
within six hours. In another experiment 17 out of 50 grams was 
eaten. In every case the material was eaten very reluctantly, and the 
remainder of the 50 grams was refused in spite of hunger. No S3^mp- 
toms of poison were presented. 

Our observations indicate that, as a rvile, the leaves of the plant are 
not an acceptable food, and it is possible that if eaten in large quanti- 
ties the}- might prove deleterious if not poisonous. All parts of the 
plant have a decidedly resinous taste. According to Rydberg, the 
seed. root, and young stalks are used for food by the Indians. A very 
similar plant, WyetJiia Jongicaulis^ is used for food by some of the 
California Indians, but in this case only the seed and the lower third 
of the tenderest leave •, together with a part of the flower stalks while 
they are still crisp and tender, are eaten. The root, which is far more 
resinous, is considered a valuable medicine. 

WILD GERANIUM. 

{Geranium viscosissimuni Fisch. & Mey.) 

A perennial herb 2 to 4 feet high, hairy throughout, with sharply 
serrate leaves and <;onspicuous purple flowers (PI. III). The plant is- 
common in valleys and on moist, shady hillsides in all parts of the 
State. The general distribution of this species is from California 
through Montana to the Saskatchewan. 

On June 7, 19^ grams of the fresh leaves was offered to a young- 
rabbit which had been deprived of its breakfast. It did not take to- 
the ration readily, but about half of the quantity was eaten at 5 o'clock, 
when an accident put an end to further observations for the day. No 
ill effect was noted up to that time. 

At Pullman, Wash.,' 3i pounds of the fresh leaves of a similar 
species was fed in the course of a dav to a sheep without causing any 
ill effect. 



'U. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bui. 22, p. 14. 1898. 



148 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

LOW MILK VETCH. 

{Orojphaca caespitosa (Nutt.) Britton.) 

A low stemless, tufted, silky perennial, with 3-parted leaves crowded 
upon a short, branched, woody base, and numerous flowers which 
are exceeded by the leaves (PI. XXXV). This species is locally 
abundant on dry plains and hillsides near Bozeman, Fort Benton, 
Fridley, Gardiner, Grafton, Billings, Lewiston, Baltic, Missoula, and 
Deerlodg-e. The general distribution of the species is from Nebraska 
and South Dakota to Montana and the Northwest Territory. It is 
abundant in the grazing land on the benches near Bozeman. The 
plant has been suspected of being one of the Montana locoweeds, but 
numerous closely grazed flowering plants were noticed in one field 
where the horses were not known to be affected by the loco disease. 
Immediately adjacent to these plants were numerous specimens of 
BalsaTnorhiza sagittata which had not been grazed upon at all, a fact 
that suggests that the vetch is the better fodder. Experiments made 
w^ith both plants verify that belief. 

Fifty grams of the perfectly fresh flowering and fruiting plant was 
offered to a hungry young rabbit two hours or so after gathering. 
All but the seed pods had been eaten after seven hours, and they, too, 
were all eaten next morning. No ill consequences resulted, and in 
fact the rabbit readil}^ ate about 5 grams more of the plant the second 
day, thus showing that it was an acceptable food. 

FALSE ESPARCET. 

{Astragalus hisulcatus (Hook.) A. Gray.) 

A rather stout perennial, 2 to 3 feet high, with numerous simple 
stems forming a large stool, long many-pinnate leaves, and narrow 
elongated racemes of showj" purple flowers (PL XXXVI). The 
seed pods are characteristically two-grooved on the upper surface. 
It blossoms during May and June and the seeds ripen in July and 
August. This plant has attracted considerable attention in Montana 
on account of its abundance and its aggressive habits in certain locali- 
ties. It is generally distributed over the State, and in many places 
grows so abundantly that it yields a fair crop of hay. Ordinarily it 
does not cover the ground completely, but grows in large stools 
which are separated b}^ varying distances. A few large areas were 
observed where it covered the ground in the manner of a cultivated 
forage plant. Such areas are quite striking on account of the numer- 
ous bright violet-colored flowers. The plant is known to a number of 
stockmen by the name wild esparcet on account of its slight resem- 
blance in general habit to the cultivated esparcet. It is at present 
cut for hay in only a small number of localities. When offered to 



Bui. 26. Dlv. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate XXXV. 




Low Milk Vetch Orophaca caespitosa 



Bui. 26, D.v. of Botany, Dopt of Agr 



Plate XXXVI. 




False Esparcet (Astragalus bisulcatus). 



WRONGLY SUSPECTED SPECIES. 149 

animals it is eaten greedily — sheep, cattle, and horses appearing to 
like it as well as the cultivated legumes. It was observed that it 
makes a good growth even in exceedingly dry soil. In one locality 
which had been less favored with rain, and where native grasses had 
been badly dried up, a field was found in which the plants stood at a 
height of IS inches and covered the ground completely. It was in full 
bloom and in good condition to be cut for ha}' by June 10. As soon 
as the pods appear they are greedily eaten by sheep, and seem to be 
preferred to the other parts of the plant. All parts, however, are 
eaten in hay. Large quantities of it were fed to sheep and calves 
without any injurious effects, and it is certainly destined to be a 
valuable forage plant. 

WHITE MILK VETCH. 

[Astragalus drummondii Dougl.) 

An erect perennial, 1 to 2 feet high, soft-hairy throughout, with 
numerous pinnately divided leaves, white flowers in long crowded 
racemes which blossom in June and Jul}*, and long slender greenish 
pods which droop upon the stems. The species grow abundantly' upon 
prairies and hillsides in nearly all parts of the State, having been 
found in the season of 1900 at Livingston, Bozeman, Red Lodge, Big- 
timber, Kalispell, Great Falls, Fort Benton, Lewistown, Missoula, and 
Deerlodge. The general distribution of this plant is from Colorado 
and Nebraska to the Saskatchewan. 

No localities were found where this plant occupied the ground 
exclusively. It grows, however, in many areas where native hay is 
cut and constitutes an important element of such hay. It was abund- 
ant in pastures at Bozeman and at Livingston, but was not eaten by 
stock in the pre-flowering stage. Rabbits and also a stable horse 
refused to eat it out of hand in that condition, but a horse that had 
been staked out to graze and had perhaps somewhat accustomed itself 
to the plant ate a handful with apparent relish. One cow out of a 
large herd which was grazing amongst it voluntarily ate a large 
clump, but immediately afterwards passed many others without even 
nibbling at them. The herder stated that the cows ate the plants very 
rarely, but his remarks probably referred onh' to the period before 
blossoming. He had noted no ill effect from eating it. 

A hungry rabbit ate in a period of seven hours only 6 out of 50 
grams of the plant in the preflowering stage. No ill effect was noted. 
Another hungry ral)bit that utterly refused to eat the leaves out of 
hand ate several bunches of the white flowers with great relish. The 
plant seems to be eaten more readily on the range by sheep than b}- 
cattle and horses. It is much liked in hay b}' all stock. Sheep seem 
to have a special fondness for the pods of the various native legumes 



150 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA. 

and it was frequently observed that bands of sheep were feeding exclu- 
sively upon the pods of A. drummondii. The pods when green have 
an agreeable flavor somewhat resembling that of the cultivated pea, 
and since they grow in large numbers on each plant and are of con- 
siderable size, it is an easy matter for sheep to fill themselves with 
this one kind of forage. On some sheep ranges this plant grows 
abundantl}' and it was noted that at the time when the pods were in 
best condition for eating they were entirely stripped from the plants, 
while the leaves and stems were left untouched. 

O 



h Mr '08 



